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The Historical Experience*
Published in Vilma R. Hunt, Kathleen Lucas-Wallace, Jeanne M. Manson, Work and the Health of Women, 2020
Vilma R. Hunt, Kathleen Lucas-Wallace, Jeanne M. Manson
Since the turn of the century there has been a gradual reduction of the severe and often sudden onset of fatal acute and chronic benzene poisoning due to high exposures. By the 1920s workers were experiencing a slower more insidious chronic poisoning even though improved ventilation was being attempted. However, a sudden deterioration was still probable wih a fatal result when there was protracted chronic exposure.
An Introduction to Risk Assessment with a Nod to History
Published in Ted W. Simon, Environmental Risk Assessment, 2019
The Occupational Safety and Health Act was also passed in 1970, and established the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). OSHA based its early regulatory decisions on whether or not a hazard was identified—a qualitative criterion. In 1978, the American Petroleum Institute challenged OSHA’s benzene lifetime permissible exposure limit. This case went all the way to the Supreme Court. The court ruled that OSHA must establish that the chemical poses a “significant” risk before establishing a standard. The court wrote: Some risks are plainly acceptable and others are plainly unacceptable. If for example, the odds are one in a billion that a person will die from cancer by taking a drink of chlorinated water, the risk clearly could not be considered significant. On the other hand, if the odds are one in a thousand that regular inhalation of gasoline vapors that are 2 percent benzene will be fatal, a reasonable person might well consider the risk significant and take the appropriate steps to decrease or eliminate it.40 OSHA chose a risk level of 10–3 or “one in a thousand” as an appropriate standard for the workplace. The court identified acceptable risk as somewhere in the million-fold risk range from “one in a billion” to “one in a thousand.” OSHA ended up choosing 10–3 as an acceptable risk, the upper end of the range stated by the court.
Evaluating Toxic Tort Cases
Published in Julie Dickinson, Anne Meyer, Karen J. Huff, Deborah A. Wipf, Elizabeth K. Zorn, Kathy G. Ferrell, Lisa Mancuso, Marjorie Berg Pugatch, Joanne Walker, Karen Wilkinson, Legal Nurse Consulting Principles and Practices, 2019
William P. Gavin, Mark A. Love, Wendie A. Howland
Benzene is a volatile organic compound (VOC), a six-carbon ring that forms the basic structure for numerous other organic compounds such as gasoline, kerosene, and various historical cleaning agents. There are several other compounds that have benzene as a foundation (such as toluene and xylene) with different characteristics, but for purposes of this chapter, they are included in this category. Benzene is also found in smoke and diesel exhaust. Several studies have associated benzene exposure with an increased risk of leukemias and lymphomas (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry [ATSDR], n.d.).
Development of reliable quantitative structure–toxicity relationship models for toxicity prediction of benzene derivatives using semiempirical descriptors
Published in Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods, 2023
Ayushi Singh, Sunil Kumar, Archana Kapoor, Parvin Kumar, Ashwani Kumar
For many years, benzene derivatives have been employed in the chemical industry. These are used in insecticides, herbicides, and organic synthesis as solvents, propellants, additives, cooling agents, and other polymers (Sixt et al. 1995; Huang et al. 2003). Because of their toxicity, many of these derivatives can harm the environment, humans, animals, and plants (Martínez-López et al. 2017). Whether ingested orally, inhaled through the respiratory system, or absorbed via the skin, benzene possesses both chronic, and acute effects. Irritation of the mucous membranes, headaches, instability, euphoria, convulsions, excitement or depression, and unconsciousness are some of the acute effects of inhalation. Ingestion of benzene has been linked to the development of bronchitis and pneumonia, while skin exposure has been linked to erythema, blistering, and dryness (redness). Exposure to high quantities of benzene can result in death (Hosseini and Shafiei 2016).
Human biomonitoring of low-level benzene exposures
Published in Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 2022
Benzene is a ubiquitous chemical as it is produced in combustion processes of organic materials and also present in crude oil, natural gas, and a wide variety of lighter petroleum products, such as gasoline. As a consequence, benzene may be emitted in various industrial and transportation settings and presents an occupational and environmental hazard. Obviously, the adverse health effects that may be caused by benzene depends on both the level and the duration of exposure. Over time, exposure levels have dramatically decreased. At present, traffic and emissions from petrochemical industries are the most important sources for benzene in ambient air. For individuals, the major exposure to benzene may result from cigarette smoke (both direct or second-hand) and from tools with gasoline-powered engines, especially if these are stored in garages attached to homes.
Linalool reverses benzene-induced cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and lysosomal/mitochondrial damages in human lymphocytes
Published in Drug and Chemical Toxicology, 2022
Ahmad Salimi, Farzad Khodaparast, Shahab Bohlooli, Niloufar Hashemidanesh, Elahe Baghal, Lotfollah Rezagholizadeh
Experimental and epidemiological investigation have proposed that the occupational and environmental exposure to benzene can lead to a great number of diseases, which can implicate several organs such as central nervous system (CNS), the developmental and reproductive system, the respiratory system and the immune system (Galbraith et al. 2010, Falzone et al. 2016). As well as recent studies have suggested that exposure to benzene can result in increase the risk of developing cardiovascular disease and significant cardiovascular injury (Abplanalp et al. 2017). It is widely accepted that repeated or prolonged exposure with benzene can cause hematological disorders and malignancies such as acute and chronic lymphocytic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, multiple myeloma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, aplastic anemia, pancytopenia and peripheral lymphocytopenia (Goldstein 1977, Aksoy 1989). It is generally recognized that metabolism of benzene is critical in above hematological disorders and malignancies, with the involvement of one or more reactive metabolites (Zhang et al.2010, Nishikawa et al. 2011, Dewi et al. 2020). Subsequently, the reactive metabolites of benzene can induce the ROS formation which can directly damage molecular targets (Badham and Winn 2010). Therefore, due to the unavoidable exposure of humans to benzene, it deems necessary to develop new agents that target benzene-induced cytotoxicity (Fenga et al. 2007).