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Natural Gas, Crude Oil, Heavy Crude Oil, Extra-Heavy Crude Oil, and Tar Sand Bitumen
Published in James G. Speight, Refinery Feedstocks, 2020
Shale oil is produced from a special class of bituminous rocks that has achieved some importance is the so-called oil shale (Scouten, 1990; Lee, 1991; Speight, 2012b). These are argillaceous, laminated sediments of generally high organic content that can be thermally decomposed to yield appreciable amounts of oil, commonly referred to as shale oil. Oil shale does not yield shale oil without the application of high temperatures and the ensuing thermal decomposition that is necessary to decompose the organic material (kerogen) in the shale. The kerogen produces a liquid product (shale oil) by thermal decomposition at high temperature (>500°C, >930°F). The raw oil shale can even be used directly as a fuel akin to a low-quality coal. Indeed, oil shale deposits have been exploited as such for several centuries and shale oil has been produced from oil shale since the 19th century.
Minerals Industries
Published in Charles E. Baukal, Industrial Combustion Pollution and Control, 2003
A schematic of the cement manufacturing process is shown in Fig. 14.23 [46]. Cement is made by burning together, in a specific proportion, a mixture of naturally occurring argillaceous (containing alumina) and calcareous (containing calcium carbonate or lime) materials to a partial fusion at high temperature (about 2640°F or 1450°C). The resulting product is called clinker, which is cooled and then ground into a fine material known as cement. A relatively small amount of gypsum or plaster of paris is sometime added to the clinker to adjust the setting time of the mixture. Common calcareous materials include limestone, chalk, oyster shells, and marl. Limestone is the predominant material and consists of lime (CaO), silica (Si02), alumina (A1203), and iron oxide (Fe203). Common argillaceous materials include clay, shale, slate, and slag from blast furnaces used in steel making. Five different types of cement are commonly produced: regular, moderate heat of hardening and sulfate resisting, high early strength, low heat, and sulfate resisting.
Radioactive Waste Management
Published in C. K. Gupta, Materials in Nuclear Energy Applications, 1989
Argillaceous formations are sedimentary rocks varying from unconsolidated, plastic clays to the harder rocks such as shales and slates produced when clays have been subjected to great pressure over long periods. The principal attraction of these is their very large ion-exchange capacity, which makes them admirably suitable. They adsorb radioactive species leached from the waste by flowing groundwater. The plastic clays have self-sealing properties. The shales and slates are prone to crack and fissure if subjected to earth movements. The water movement rate through these formations is relatively low. It is virtually nil in plastic clays. The quantity of water inherent in their constitution can be considerable. Clays have the greatest quantity of water, which is progressively less in shales and slates. It is the behavior of this water under thermal influence that constitutes the most important question in relation to the emplacement of hot wastes. These formations, however, appear to have very good potential for plutonium-contaminated and other ILWs with low heat emission.
Constitutive model development and field simulation of excavation damage in bedded argillaceous rock
Published in European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering, 2023
The understanding and prediction of the mechanical behaviour of argillaceous rocks are important in many areas of industrial activity in this rock type, including fracking for oil and gas exploitation, carbon dioxide sequestration, underground mining or geological disposal of radioactive waste. In this work, the authors took advantage of a comprehensive set of experimental data on the Opalinus Clay (Mont Terri, Switzerland) and Tournemire shale (Aveyron, France) in order to develop a generic and coherent constitutive model for argillaceous rocks. The constitutive relationship being proposed is based on the elastoplastic theoretical framework. It includes directional dependence of the elastic and plastic parameters, strain-hardening, and viscosity in order to simulate the time-dependent behaviour. A unique set of model parameters were determined from the experimental data. That set of parameters was then used to perform the modelling of the triaxial tests, using the finite element method to solve the equation of static equilibrium. The ability of the model to reproduce the main physics that prevailed in all tests, using a unified set of experimental data, provides confidence in its robustness.
Characterisation and ceramic application of clays from North Africa
Published in Applied Earth Science, 2022
Increasing demand for products manufactured from clay and clay minerals with applications in the fields of agriculture, construction, engineering, process industries and environmental science has attracted research into argillaceous sediments. In Africa, during the last two decades, most study was directed to the characterisation of clay sediments (e.g. Baccour et al., 2008; Mahmoudi et al., 2008; Daoudi et al., 2014; El Ouahabi et al., 2014; Hammami-Ben Zaied et al., 2015; Mahmoudi et al., 2014; Bennour et al. 2015a; Mahmoudi et al., 2016), firing transformations of raw materials (Sahnoune et al., 2008; Baccour et al., 2009; Khalfaoui and Hajjaji, 2009; Mahmoudi et al., 2010; Azzouz et al., 2011; Hajjaji and Mezouari, 2011; Bennour et al. 2015b; El Ouahabi et al., 2015) and their application in tile and brick products. Despite the antiquity of the pottery industries, few studies have been carried out on the clays and raw materials used in North Africa. This paper constitutes an inventory of clay materials which are widely used in North Africa. On the one hand, this study encourages investors in the mining industry to expand to other parts of African countries. On the other hand, it forms the basis for the scientific research community to widen their knowledge of clay materials in North Africa.
Application of Fisher discriminant method in the facies division of lake facies-Taking the third member of Shahejie Formation in Dongying Sag as an example
Published in Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 2022
He Zhao, Hongliang Wang, Huimin Liu, Rongjie Huang, Huaiyu Yang
The argillaceous rock is a terrigenous clastic particle with a size of less than 0.004 mm and a rock with a clay mineral content greater than 50% (Yu, Zhao, and Su 2012). The argillaceous rock is a type of sedimentary rock that is distributed the most widely, accounting for about 60% of the total. In practice, the argillaceous rock is divided into clay, mudstone and shale according to the degree of consolidation and the structural features. This study classifies the mudstones and provides prediction methods for further research on lacustrine mudstone. Mineral composition is the fundamental factor that causes the diversity of sedimentary rockss, and is also an important indicator of the division of lithofacies (Chen et al. 2016). The predecessors divided the lithofaciesfacies in Dongying depression according to the contents of felsic minerals, clay minerals and carbonate minerals (Liu, Lu, and Meng et al. 2015). The development of a large number of carbonate matter components in the area results in various problems in the spatial distribution of sand bodies, which restricts the development of oil and gas exploration and the upgrading of the reserves (Jiang 2016). The presence of the carbonate matter component has certain influence on the mudstone reservoir. Therefore, the mudstone in the study area is subdivided according to differences of the carbonate matter composition.Sedimentary structures are important basis for the division and naming of the facies. The structure can determine the sedimentary environment of the rocks and reveal the sedimentary features. The study of the mudstone in the well section mainly develops a block structure, a layered structure (layering > 2 mm) and a layered layer (layered < 2 mm). Since the bedding of the studied well is thin, the layered and stratified layers are not distinct, so from the perspective of construction, it is divided into two types: a block structure and a layer structure.Organic matter is the material basis of oil production, and organic matter content is another important basis for rock classification. The classification is generally based on 2%, and the mudstone facies is divided into organic matter with TOC>2% and organic matter with TOC<2%.