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Behavior Modification
Published in Eli Ilana, Oral Psychophysiology, 2020
Wolpe2,3 used the classical conditioning model to explain the acquisition of different unadaptive habits, such as classically conditioned neurotic fears. Through a process of classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimuli (e.g., the smell of dental operatory, the sound of dental drill, etc.) can be transformed into conditioned stimuli which elicit a conditioned response (e.g., anxiety). This may originate from a single occurrence (single-trial learning) or be progressively built up in the course of a series of related events.
Brain Immune Pathways Regulating Immunological Function and Conditioned Immune Responses
Published in Husband Alan J., Behaviour and Immunity, 2019
Arnold H. Greenberg, Richard Brown, Zuo Li, Dennis G. Dyck
The impact of CNS signalling on various components of the immune system has been demonstrated through various behavioral conditioning studies.17-23 The procedure in these studies involves pairing a distinctive environmental stimulus (conditional stimulus; CS) with a potent immunomodulatory agent (unconditional stimulus; UCS). Conditioning is typically inferred on the basis of an altered immune response to a later presentation of the CS (conditioned response; CR) although a modified systemic response (UR) to a cued presentation of a drug after repeated cue-drug pairings (e.g. conditioned tolerance) has also been interpreted as evidence for conditioning.20,21 In the latter instance, the inference of an associative process is warranted only if the altered UCR is context-specific to cues paired with the UCS, and additionally demonstrates a sensitivity to known conditioning procedures such as extinction or CS pre-exposure.
Psychology
Published in Bhaskar Punukollu, Michael Phelan, Anish Unadkat, MRCPsych Part 1 In a Box, 2019
Bhaskar Punukollu, Michael Phelan, Anish Unadkat
Higher order conditioning: Associated with classical conditioning – a newly introduced conditioned stimulus is associated with an established unconditioned stimulus so that it produces the same response (conditioned response).
What is the role of placebo in neurotherapeutics?
Published in Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 2022
Elisa Frisaldi, Aziz Shaibani, Marco Trucco, Edoardo Milano, Fabrizio Benedetti
This theory posits the placebo/nocebo effect as the result of Pavlovian conditioning [1]. In this process, the repeated co-occurrence of an unconditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. salivation after the sight of food) with a conditioned stimulus (e.g. a bell ringing) induces a conditioned response (i.e. salivation that is induced by bell ringing alone). Likewise, aspects of the clinical setting (e.g. taste, color, shape of a pill, as well as white coats or the peculiar hospital smell; see Figure 1) can also act as conditioned stimuli, eliciting a therapeutic response in the absence of an active principle, just because they have been paired with it in the past. In the same way, the conditioned response can be a negative outcome, as in the case of nausea elicited by the sight of the environment where chemotherapy has been administered in the past. Classical conditioning seems to work best where unconscious processes are at play, as in placebo/nocebo effects involving endocrine or immune systems, but it has also been documented in clinical and experimental placebo analgesia and nocebo hyperalgesia.
Towards A Better Understanding of Hypervigilance in Combat Veterans
Published in Military Behavioral Health, 2019
Successful treatment of conditioned fear-related stimuli (e.g., fear in a crowd in a civilian context after experiencing a bombing in a crowded combat zone) requires extinction of the conditioned stimulus by successive presentations of the conditioned stimulus (CS) alone, in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). In other words, multiple presentations of a crowd (CS) without a bomb (UCS) should promote successful extinction of the fear response in the presence of a crowd. Extinction learning involves the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC; Morgan & LeDoux, 1995); the hippocampus, which is involved in context modulation of extinction retention (e.g., Bouton, 2004); and the infralimbic cortex, which is responsible for recall of extinction learning (Sotres-Bayon, Cain, & LeDoux et al., 2006). Although the original theory of extinction posits that the association between the CS-UCS pairing is essentially “unlearned” (Rescorla & Wagner, 1972), there is now significant evidence to suggest that the original learning survives extinction, and the absence of the conditioned response is due to the creation of a new inhibitory association that masks the original excitatory association (see Bouton, 2004, for a review). Thus, extinction is essentially “new learning” rather than “unlearning.” Subsequently, for this new learning to take place, the new pairing has to be created, it has to be consolidated into memory, and it has to be recalled when appropriate.
Treatment of School Refusal in an Adolescent With Comorbid Anxiety and Chronic Medical Illness
Published in Evidence-Based Practice in Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 2018
Stephanie N. Rohrig, Anthony C. Puliafico
In contrast to the assumption that school refusal is an extension of extreme oppositionality and truancy, school refusal is now considered a product of severe anxiety and conditioned avoidance (Blumkin, 2016; Egger et al., 2003; Kearney & Bates, 2005). This conceptualization is consistent with behavioral principles of conditioning, as anxiety becomes the conditioned response to a neutral stimulus (e.g., school) after an aversive experience (Pavlov, 1927). Research indicates that school refusal in younger children is often associated with anxiety about separating from a parent (Gosschalk, 2004; Hanna, Fischer, & Fluent, 2006), whereas social anxiety and avoidance of social evaluation (e.g., exams, teachers) are more prevalent in adolescents (Elliott, 1999; McShane, Walter, & Rey, 2001). Although immediate avoidance or escape from school-related anxiety-provoking situations provides relief, prolonged avoidance of school perpetuates the cycle of anxiety and makes school attendance progressively more distressing.