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Panax quinquefolium (American Ginseng) and Physostigma venenosum (Calabar Bean)
Published in Azamal Husen, Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees of Potential Medicinal Benefits, 2022
Sushweta Mahalanobish, Noyel Ghosh, Parames C. Sil
Most of the ginsenosides comprise a dammarane skeleton where 17 carbon atoms are arranged in four rings. Based on the number of hydroxyl groups, dammarane-type ginsenosides can be further classified into two subgroups: protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxatriol (PPT) (Feng et al., 2017). In PPD group, ginsenoside contains sugar moiety at C-3 and/or C-20 position. Here, linear linkages occur between glycosyl chains, and acylation takes place at the 6-OH of the terminal glucose of a three-sugar chain. This subgroup can be exemplified by ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Rg3, and Rh2. Whereas, PPT subgroup covers both ginsenosides such as Re, Rf, Rg1, Rg2, Rh1, F1, F3, and also notoginsenosides like R1, R2 etc. Structurally, compounds of the PPT subgroup contain no more than two glycosyl chains and a linear linkage of saccharide chains (Yang et al., 2014). The presence of hydroxyl (-OH) group at C-6 position in PPTs distinguishes them from PPDs (Wang et al., 2005). Ginsenosides Rb1, Re, Rd, Rg1, and Rb3 are the five major saponins that account for more than 70% of total ginsenosides in AG. The second class includes oleanolic acid as the aglycone moiety, and among its derivatives, ginsenoside Ro is notable (Huang et al., 2018).
Herbal Products in Antihypertensive Therapy
Published in Dilip Ghosh, Pulok K. Mukherjee, Natural Medicines, 2019
Fernão C. Braga, Steyner F. Côrtes
The antihypertensive effect of ginseng has been investigated by several clinical trials. In a recent study, red Korean ginseng was given to pre-hypertensive subjects (5 g divided into 10 capsules, daily). After 12 weeks, the treated group showed reductions of 6.5 and 5.0 mmHg in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, respectively, in comparison to control. The reduction in blood pressure was associated with decreased lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 and lysophosphatidylcholines levels and increased dihydrobiopterin concentration in the treated subjects (Cha et al. 2016). In another study performed with mild hypertensive patients, a P. ginseng extract enriched in ginsenoside protopanaxatriol (300 mg/day) induced a significant decrease of 3.1 and 2.3 mmHg in SBP and DBP, respectively (Rhee et al. 2014). In turn, a P. ginseng extract enriched in ginsenoside Rg3 (400 mg) given to healthy subjects induced a significant reduction in SBP and DBP respectively by 4.8 ± 6.8 and 3.6 ± 6.4 mmHg hours after ingestion (Jovanovski et al. 2014). A clinical trial carried out with hypertensive patients treated with P. quinquefolius (3 g/day, 12 weeks) showed a decrease in SBP by 17.4 mmHg (Mucalo et al. 2013).
How Differences in Chemical Constituents in Ginseng Affect Medicinal Effects
Published in Joseph P. Hou, The Healing Power of Ginseng, 2019
The root of P. ginseng contains a large number of different constituents. There are primarily a number of saponins, generally referred to as ginsenosides. The three genuine sapogenins of ginsenosides were identified as 20(S)-protopanaxadiol, 20(S)-protopanaxatriol, and oleanolic acid.1–3 Panaxadiol and panaxatriol, which were supposed to be the sapogenins, were later found as artifacts during acid hydrolysis of saponins.3–5 The sapogenins and saponins isolated from ginseng root are listed in Table 14.1.6–14
Ginsenoside Re attenuates 8-OH-DPAT-induced serotonergic behaviors in mice via interactive modulation between PKCδ gene and Nrf2
Published in Drug and Chemical Toxicology, 2023
Eun-Joo Shin, Ji Hoon Jeong, Bao-Trong Nguyen, Naveen Sharma, Cuong Ngoc Kim Tran, Seung-Yeol Nah, Yi Lee, Jae Kyung Byun, Sung Kwon Ko, Hyoung-Chun Kim
Until now, no significant information is available on therapeutic intervention against serotonin toxicity caused by 5-HT receptors, although evidence suggested that ginseng possesses modulating effects on the serotonin system (Lee et al.2020). We recently filed a patent (patent number, KR 1-1-2020-1158807-40: the pharmaceutical composition for the prevention and treatment of serotonin syndrome behaviors), where we observed in our patent that protopanaxatriol (PPT) attenuated serotonergic behaviors in mice and that ginsenoside Re (GRe) in PPT played a major role in protecting serotonergic behaviors. Furthermore, GRe, a highly abundant active component of ginsenosides in mountain-cultivated ginseng (MCG), has been reported to possess neuroprotective potentials in various type of animal models (Xu et al.2005, Zhou et al. 2006, Shin et al.2014a, Wang et al.2015, Tran et al.2017a, Tu et al.2017, Dang et al.2018a).
In vitro modulatory effects of ginsenoside compound K, 20(S)-protopanaxadiol and 20(S)-protopanaxatriol on uridine 5′-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferase activity and expression
Published in Xenobiotica, 2021
Su-Nyeong Jang, So-Young Park, Hyunyoung Lee, Hyojin Jeong, Ji-Hyeon Jeon, Im-Sook Song, Mi Jeong Kwon, Kwang-Hyeon Liu
However, ginsenosides linked to sugar moieties are poorly absorbed into human blood with low oral bioavailability (He et al. 2015), indicating that FDI potential with these ginsenosides in vivo might be negligible. Ginsenosides are metabolised by gut microflora, primarily via deglycosylation (Chen et al. 2018). PPD-type ginsenosides such as Rc. Rb1 and Rb2 are metabolised to PPD via ginsenoside compound K by intestinal bacteria (Liu et al. 2015). Likewise, PPT-type ginsenosides including ginsenoside Re, Rf, Rg1, and Rg2 are gradually metabolised to PPT (Feng et al., 2010). Ginsenoside compound K (CK), 20(S)-protopanaxatriol (PPT) and 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD), not present in red ginseng extract (RGE), were detected in plasma after ingestion of RGE (Jin, Jeon et al. 2019). CK is the most abundant ginsenoside after RGE administration in humans (Choi et al., 2020). We aimed to evaluate the drug interaction potential of CK, PPD, and PPT (Figure 1), known as the final metabolites of ginsenosides, against UGT activity.
Comparative pharmacokinetic analysis of raw and steamed Panax notoginseng roots in rats by UPLC-MS/MS for simultaneously quantifying seven saponins
Published in Pharmaceutical Biology, 2021
Jiajia Dong, Zhenzhen Yin, Lianlin Su, Mengting Yu, Meng Wang, Lin Li, Chunqin Mao, Tulin Lu
Numerous studies have shown that most of the pharmacological activities of P. notoginseng are believed to be associated with saponins derived mainly from the tetracyclic dammarane. These triterpene saponins are classified according to their structures as 20(S)-protopanaxadiol type (ppd-type) saponins, such as ginsenosides Ra3, Rb1 and Rd and 20(S)-protopanaxatriol type (ppt-type) saponins, such as ginsenosides Re and Rg1 and notoginsenoside R1. The change of chemical composition of P. notoginseng will occur during the steaming process. After steaming process, some saponins were decreased (ginsenosides Rg1, Rb1, Rd and Re), some saponins were increased, and a large number of new effective compounds generated, such as ginsenosides Rg3, Rg5, Rk1, Rk3, Rh4, F4 and Rh1, which are unique saponins that only existed in SPN but not in RPN (Sun et al. 2010; Toh et al. 2010; Chen et al. 2014; Wu et al. 2015). Although many reports about bioactivity analysis and chemical content quantification regarding P. notoginseng have been published in recent years, little effort has been made to investigate comparative pharmacokinetics between raw and steam-processed P. notoginseng (Liu et al. 2009; Jiang et al. 2015; Xing et al. 2015; Zhou et al. 2015; Dai et al. 2016; Xiong et al. 2017; Zhu et al. 2018).