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An Introduction to the Immune System and Vaccines
Published in Patricia G. Melloy, Viruses and Society, 2023
The cells, tissues, organs, and vessels of the immune system of the human body are physically known as the lymphatic system. Lymphatic tissue can also be found in other body systems, including the digestive system and the respiratory system. Lymph, a fluid that circulates in the body independent of blood, flows into lymph nodes (glands) that are connected by lymphatic vessels. Organs such as the spleen, thymus, and bone marrow are all networked with the lymph nodes through the lymphatic system (Ross and Pawlina 2011). Lymph nodes can filter lymph and are major sites where immune reactions take place (Cruse and Lewis 2009). The major parts of the lymphatic system are shown in Figure 2.2.
Autopsy Cardiac Examination
Published in Mary N. Sheppard, Practical Cardiovascular Pathology, 2022
The heart is supplied by a rich plexus of lymphatics. The lymphatic channels run along with the veins and drain the lymph to the pulmonary hilar lymph nodes and also directly into the thoracic duct and the left lymphatic channel. As part of the circulatory system, lymphatic vessels have particular functions in fluid homeostasis, lipid absorption, immune cell trafficking and causative agent filtration. The lymphatic vascular system consists of a compact network of blind-ended, slight-walled lymphatic capillaries and collecting lymph vessels that drain exudative protein-rich fluid from the majority of tissues that transport the lymph by way of the thoracic duct to the venous circulation. Several lymphatic endothelial markers, such as vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 (VEGFR-3), lymphatic vessel endothelial hyaluronic acid receptor-1 (LYVE-1), prospero-related homeobox-1 (Prox-1) and podoplanin (D2-40) are widely used in labelling lymphatics (Fig. 1.16).
Lymphoscintigraphy
Published in Michael Ljungberg, Handbook of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging for Physicists, 2022
Rimma Axelsson, Maria Holstensson, Ulrika Estenberg
Today MRI, CT, ultrasonography, and lymphoscintigraphy are imaging modalities used for patients with swollen limbs. Radiological methods can demonstrate signs of lymphedema such as edema, skin thickening, fluid accumulation, and honeycomb pattern of the subcutaneous tissue, which are characteristic for the disease [5–7]. While all these are signs of consequences of lymphatic diseases, lymphoscintigraphic imaging provides direct visualization of the lymphatic vessels and physiological information of the lymph flow [8]. Lymphoscintigraphy is simple and is an easily reproducible imaging technique allowing assessment and visualization of the lymph distribution through the lymph vessels and nodes. Apart from the low radiation exposure associated with lymphoscintigraphy (further discussed in section 1.10), there are no known risks or side effects [9].
Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)9 in cancer development: mechanistic, diagnostic, and therapeutic approaches?
Published in Journal of Drug Targeting, 2023
Ali G. Alkhathami, Mustafa Ryadh Abdullah, Muhjaha Ahmed, Hanan Hassan Ahmed, Sarab W. Alwash, Zahra Muhammed Mahdi, Fahad Alsaikhan, Ayed A. Dera
Lymphatic vessels play essential roles in physiological processes (e.g. maintenance of fluid homeostasis) and pathological conditions such as cancers. Lymphatic vessels provide a primary route for the migration and metastasis of tumour cells. Therefore, the growth of new lymphatic vessels (lymphangiogenesis) and development of the lymphatic system might contribute to the dissemination of tumour cells which may be a sign of a poor prognosis for cancer [61]. BMP9 ligation to ALK1 inhibits lymphangiogenesis under pathological and physiological conditions through decreasing lymphatic endothelial cells and downregulating the homeobox transcription factor (Prox1) expression or reducing other proliferation-related factors, including BCLXL1/BCL2L1 and C-MYC, leading to inhibition of endothelial cell proliferation [62]. These results are indicative of the anti-metastatic effects of BMP9.
Lymphatic targeting for therapeutic application using nanoparticulate systems
Published in Journal of Drug Targeting, 2022
Nidhi Singh, Mayank Handa, Vanshikha Singh, Prashant Kesharwani, Rahul Shukla
The lymphatic system was first recognised by Gasparo Aselli in the seventeenth century as per ancient text reports. It was later in the eighteenth century when various aspects of lymphatic system including its anatomy, got its attention and significance. Vascular system is further compartmentalised into lymphatic system that encompass different convoluted web of channels and hold a clear liquid termed lymph. Lymphatic system is composed of lymphatic duct, lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessel and some lymphatic organs including spleen and lymph node. Lymphatic vessels carry a clear watery fluid lymph, and white blood cells. Furthermore, lymphatic system is widely distributed in other parts of body in the form of lymph nodes, which is present in the neck, chest, armpit, groyne, abdomen. Lymphatic system maintains homeostasis and protection of the body tissues against different bacterial and viral infection by the mechanism of filtration. The lymphatic system not only filters the elements from lymph but avoid the first-pass hepatic metabolism of drugs directly via intestinal uptake [1]. This property plays an important role in tissue defense against infections by promoting the lymphocytic activity which in turn provides immunity or resistance. As mentioned, one of the major roles of the lymphatic system is to maintain water homeostasis in the body by recurring fluids present outside the body and oozing out into the blood circulation. It also enhances the absorption of antibiotics, water-insoluble vitamins, long-chain fatty acid and cholesterol ester.
Preliminary outcomes of combined surgical approach for lower extremity lymphedema: supraclavicular lymph node transfer and lymphaticovenular anastomosis
Published in Journal of Plastic Surgery and Hand Surgery, 2022
Jae-Ho Chung, Yong-Jae Hwang, Seung-Ha Park, Eul-Sik Yoon
In recent days, various imaging modalities including lymphoscintigraphy, SPECT/CT, MR lymphography, ICG lymphography, and ultrasonography have been introduced to preoperatively evaluate pathophysiological stage of LEL [36–39]. In the past, it was mainly up to microsurgeon’s intuition and skill to find the lymphatic vessel and matching venule. However, with the advent of ICG lymphography, it was well known that operative results depends largely on the severity of lymphosclerosis [40]. In addition, it has been recommended to perfom LVA in the region showing linear pattern based on the finding of ICG lymphography [41,42]. In our institution, lymphoscintigraphy and ICG lymphography are currently the most commonly used modalities. Ultrasonography is also frequently used to find functional lymphatic vessels. Looking back on the development of lymphatic surgery over the past decade, it is expected that preoperative lymphatic mapping and objective postoperative evaluation using these imaging modalities will be more important in the future.