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Operating Wisely
Published in Carl Bozzuto, Boiler Operator's Handbook, 2021
Volume is a measure of space. A building’s volume is described as cubic feet, abbreviated as ft3, meaning multiply the width times the length times the height. One cubic foot is the space that is one foot wide by one foot long by one foot high. For volumetric measurements, there is also the gallon. It takes 7.48 of them to make a cubic foot.
Optimal design and evaluation of a hybrid energy system for off-grid remote area
Published in Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 2022
Sabah Abdul-Wahab, Kamala Mujezinovic, Abdul Majeed Al-Mahruqi
There were 23 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of confirmed natural gas reserves in Oman in 2016, and the natural gas consumption rate more than doubled from 2006 to 2016, rising from 380 billion cubic feet (Bcf) in 2006 to 820 Bcf in 2016. The country uses more than 70% of the natural gas it produces. The Central Bank of Oman estimates that the rise in the demand for natural gas will continue in tandem with the increase in Oman’s demand for electrical energy. In response to this increased demand for natural gas, the Oman LNG Company in 2015 announced that all natural gas previously exported to foreign markets would be diverted to domestic consumers by 2024 (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2017). As a result of this decision, the majority of power stations in Oman now use natural gas as fuel. However, diesel fuel is used to operate rural power stations. Because of its limited fossil fuel reserves and its long-term commitment to gas exports, the country is searching for alternative resources to replace the existing ones (Al-Saadi and Krarti 2015).
Model of transient CO2 gas hydrate particle size distribution at its equilibrium condition
Published in Petroleum Science and Technology, 2018
Kashish Dhir, Subrata Kumar Majumder
For decades, gas hydrates have been discussed as a prospective resource of energy, particularly for countries with restricted access to conventional hydrocarbons resources or a strategic interest in initiating unconventional, alternative gas reserves. Formation of gas hydrates occur when water and gas are present at low temperature and high pressure. Such conditions are often existing in oil and gas wells, and pipeline equipment. Formation or gas hydrate is undesirable in pipe lines. So, it is necessary to inhibit the formation of hydrates. The petroleum industry spends over a billion US dollars a year to prevent hydrate formation in wells, pipelines and equipment. It is estimated that one cubic feet of natural gas hydrates can release 164 cubic feet of natural gas. In addition to methane, the lower hydrocarbons like ethane, propane and butane also form their hydrate. All gasses can form hydrates at suitable pressures and temperatures. The structure of gas hydrate is depending on the gas composition, pressure, and temperature. Low molecular weight gases like N2, H2, O2, CO2, H2S, CH4, C2H6 and Xe as well as some higher hydrocarbons and freons, form gas hydrate at suitable temperature and pressure. The physical conditions, which are favorable for gas hydrate formations are very less. A small change in pressure and temperature can result a breakdown of gas hydrate. There are specific dissociation temperature and pressure for gas hydrate dissociation. Research in gas hydrates became increasingly attractive due to the high energy density they possess compared to other conventional energy sources. Among those studies the methods to promote and/or inhibit the formation of certain gas hydrates have taken special attention. Over the past few years, gas hydrates have allured significant interest which leads to its fundamental research. Process of gas hydrate formation and decomposition is critical in many energy and environmental regions and basic understanding of such processes is important in flow assurance for petroleum sector.
Effect of magnetic field on a loosely packed, tightly packed and an over-tightly packed metal powder bed
Published in Particulate Science and Technology, 2021
Kavin Sundarnath J. Ayyanathan, Sarada Kuravi
The pressure drop measurements inside a metal powder bed were made for decelerating compressed airflow, with and without the external magnetic field for the three packed bed samples of iron (III) oxide powder. The setup that was constructed to measure the pressure drop across the packed bed is shown in Figure 1 and the corresponding schematic is shown in Figure 2. A compressed air supply with a peak pressure value of 150 psig is used in the experiment to supply the working fluid. The inlet valve is open to higher flow rate of 29.5 SCFM and measurements are taken from 29 SCFM to 27 SCFM at 0.5 SCFM intervals, as the flow rate goes down. The deceleration was estimated to be 0.001 m/s2 by measuring the time it takes for the flow rate to go down by 1 SCFM. A tape heater was wrapped around a 0.5-inch (12.7 mm) aluminum tube for a length of 18 inches (457.2 mm) to heat the air if the temperature drops much below the room temperature, which is possible as the compressor is located outside the building and supplied through metal piping and valves. All measurements in the experiment were made at the inlet temperature of 21 °C, which is same as the room temperature. After the exit from the heater, the compressed air is then expanded through a PVC elbow into 2-inch PVC piping along which the bed is placed. Here, the temperature drops to 20.5 °C due to expansion. A flow straightener is placed before the packed bed to attain parallel flow in the air stream. The flowrate and velocity are measured separately using RCM industries’ flowmeter (3% accuracy) and Omega’s FMA 1000 series (velocity indicator) respectively. The pressure drop measurements were carried out using two pressure gauges, Omega’s DPG4000 series gauge (0.05% accuracy, P1) at the inlet of the bed and Omega’s DPG7000-300 (0.05% accuracy, P2) at the outlet of the bed. The air is then vented to the atmosphere through a 9.37 mm hole, which creates a back pressure in the system. The pressure gauges used in the experiment are calibrated in pound per square inch (psi), and the flow meter was calibrated in standard cubic feet per minute (SCFM). Hence, the same units were adopted throughout this study, unless a change in unit was required.