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Entamoeba histolytica, the Causative Agent of Amoebiasis
Published in Hajiya Mairo Inuwa, Ifeoma Maureen Ezeonu, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Emmanuel Olufemi Ekundayo, Abubakar Gidado, Abdulrazak B. Ibrahim, Benjamin Ewa Ubi, Medical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutics, Forensic Science and Bioinformatics, 2022
Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Oyetunde T. Oyeyemi
MTZ has also been implicated in causing loss of appetite, metallic flavor, diarrhea, and nausea due to high dosage and long therapy requirement (Stanley, 2003). Nitroimidazoles are known to induce genetic toxicity by the positioning of their CH3 and NO2 groups which causes DNA damage (Boechat et al., 2015). MTZ becomes biotransformed into nitroso intermediates which can form adducts in the DNA or impede the thioredoxin reductase-generating reactive oxygen species, causing oxidative cell damage (Elizondo et al., 1996; Leitsch et al., 2007). The drug can also cross the blood-brain barrier leading high level of noxiousness to brain cells. These drugs utilize different mechanisms of action in killing protoplasmic organelles of E. histolytica (Ravdin and Petri, 1995). Aside the drug-associated toxicity of the common anti-amoebic drugs, they also faced the problem of parasite resistance to them (Borst and Ouellette, 1995).
Recent progress on the removal of antibiotic pollutants using photocatalytic oxidation process
Published in Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2022
Yanxi Chen, Jingling Yang, Lixi Zeng, Mingshan Zhu
Nitroimidazoles, which are mainly used in the treatment of infectious diseases, are widely used in humans and veterinary medicine. Due to the low degradability, greatly solubility, and carcinogenicity, nitroimidazoles are easily to accumulate in animals, fish and poultry farm, meat industries, and hospitals, which may cause a serious risk of human health and ecological environment. Therefore, it is urgently needed to develop efficient strategies for removing nitroimidazoles (Bendesky et al., 2002; Dong et al., 2014; Li et al., 2015; Malakootian et al., 2019). Photocatalysis is a common technology to treat nitroimidazoles. Metronidazole (MTZ), tinidazole (TNZ), and ornidazole (ONZ) are the most commonly used nitroimidazoles. Among them, the photocatalytic degradation and pathways of MTZ have been studied most. The information of the photocatalytic degradation of nitroimidazole studies in recent years has been summarized in Table 7. Moreover, it can be observed from these studies that the degradation pathways of nitroimidazoles are similar and can be summarized as denitration and the loss of their special substituents. Take MTZ as an example, the degradation pathways of MTZ during most of photocatalytic oxidation process are shown in Figure 8. Two degradation pathways of MTZ were proposed with five reaction products. In pathway 1, MTZ undergoes denitration and then loss of N-ethanol group, with the generation of products A and B, and E, respectively. In pathway 2, the N-ethanol group is first oxidized to carboxyl to produce C, which converts to D through loss of the N-acetic acid group. Besides, product D further transforms to E by denitration.