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Urban Sources of Micropollutants: from the Catchment to the Lake
Published in Nathalie Chèvre, Andrew Barry, Florence Bonvin, Neil Graham, Jean-Luc Loizeau, Hans-Rudolf Pfeifer, Luca Rossi, Torsten Vennemann, Micropollutants in Large Lakes, 2018
Jonas Margot, Luca Rossi, D. A. Barry
Plasticizers are added to plastics to improve their flexibility. Phthalates (phthalic acid esters) are common plasticizers, although phthalates are also used as fragrance dispersants in cosmetics, or as additives in epoxy resins, food packaging, building materials, etc. Phthalates are pollutants of concern owing to their disruption of endocrine activity and their association with many human health problems (alteration of reproduction, development and neurodevelopment) (Huang et al., 2012). The most investigated phthalates are di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) (majorly used as PVC plasticizer, for instance, in PVC shower curtains), dimethyl phthalate (DMP) and diethyl phthalate (DEP) (fragrance dispersants) along with di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) (additives in many products). Based on their widespread use, median concentrations of phthalate in raw municipal wastewater are approximately 40 pg l−1 for DEHP, 10 pg l−1 for DEP and 1-2 pg l−1 of DMP, DnBP and BBP (Berge et al., 2013).
Risk assessment of phthalates in pharmaceuticals
Published in Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 2019
Bu Young Chung, Seul Min Choi, Tae Hyun Roh, Duck Soo Lim, Mi Young Ahn, Yeon Joo Kim, Hyung Sik Kim, Byung-Mu Lee
Phthalates are added as plasticizers to industrial manufacturing processes for polyvinyl chloride (PVC) to impart flexibility and durability; thus, increasing its utility (CDC 2009a). The phthalates available for this purpose, include di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), and butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP), which are abundant and varied (CPSC 2013; He et al. 2018). Ninety-five percent of manufactured DEHP is used as a plasticizer in PVC, and subsequently, employed in a variety of consumer items, from household products to toys (NTP 1989). In addition, DEHP is a constituent of ink solvents and utilized as an inactive compound in cosmetics and pesticides (ATSDR 2002; NTP (National Toxicology Program) 1989). DBP, also a plasticizer for PVC, is used as a skin emollient in cosmetic products and a constituent in nail polish (Cadogan and Howick 1996; EC 2004; Uhde et al. 2001). Other phthalates such as di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP), diisononyl phthalate (DINP), diisodecyl phthalate (DIDP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), and BBP are also employed as plasticizers (CDC 2009b; EPA 2012a). Despite wide use of phthalates, concerns regarding safety are controversial due to reported endocrine-disrupting properties (Dorman et al. 2018; EPA 2012b; Kwack et al. 2009). DEHP is toxic to the reproductive system, which is evidenced by adverse effect on testes and release of testosterone (Choi et al. 2018a; Dorman et al. 2018; Kim et al. 2018; Lee and Koo 2007; Shin et al. 2014). In addition, DEHP is currently classified by the International Agency on Research on Cancer (IARC) as a Group 2B carcinogen “Possibly Carcinogenic to Humans” (IARC 2013). Since DEP may damage both fetus and the reproductive system, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA 1995) stated that DEP requires careful management. Further, monoethyl phthalate (MEP), a DEP metabolite, has been associated with DNA damage in human sperm (Duty et al. 2003). In animal experiments, DBP was reported to affect the reproductive system by increasing the incidence of undescended testicles and disruption of androgenic rather than estrogenic systems (Foster, Cattley, and Mylchreest 2000; Howdeshell et al. 2008; Lee and Koo 2007). Although IARC did not classify DBP as a carcinogen, the European Union (EU) has banned the use of DBP in personal products (EU 2005; IARC 2000). Although DIDP did not exhibit carcinogenicity in animal experiments, the Federal Hazardous Substances Act (FHSA) categorized DIDP as a probable developmental toxicant (Barber et al. 2000; CPSC 2010). Both DnOP and DINP are not classified as carcinogens, but DINP was reported to exert anti-androgenic effects (IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) 2000). Based upon evidence for phthalate-mediated endocrine-disrupting effects and large consumption of these chemicals, safety concerns have arisen regarding potential human exposure to these compounds present in medications or medical devices.