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Learning
Published in Mohamed Ahmed Abd El-Hay, Understanding Psychology for Medicine and Nursing, 2019
Associative learning refers to the process by which an element is taught through association with another separate, pre-occurring element, that is, learning that occurs when certain events go together. If one associates a sound with a frightening consequence, hearing the sound alone may trigger fear. Learned associations feed our habitual response (Wood & Neal, 2007). Two major types of associative learning are described: classic and operant conditioning.
Exercise Effects in Cognition and Motor Learning
Published in Henning Budde, Mirko Wegner, The Exercise Effect on Mental Health, 2018
In addition to being essential for declarative memories, the hippocampus is thought to be especially important for associative learning and memory. Associative, or relational, learning and memory involves forming and using representations among elements within an internal or external environment (Henke, Buck, Weber, & Wieser 1997). An example would be the nostalgic alphabet posters in grade school classrooms that pair a letter (such as A) with an item (like an Apple). By forming this association (A for Apple), children are able to learn the letters, their sounds, and how they may be used to begin to spell words. Beyond the alphabet, associative learning is important as it allows for binding information and is integral to learning within and outside the classroom. In vivo functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have provided further evidence that the hippocampus is engaged during encoding and retrieval of declarative information (Binder, Bellgowan, Hammeke, Possing, & Frost 2005; Chua, Schacter, Rand-Giovannetti, & Sperling 2007; Davachi & Wagner 2002; Giovanello, Schnyer, & Verfaellie 2004; Greicius et al. 2003; Karlsgodt, Shirinyan, van Erp, Cohen, & Cannon 2005; Reber, Wong, & Buxton 2002; Schacter & Wagner 1999), and is especially so during associative learning (Giovanello et al. 2004). Additionally, the hippocampus is activated alongside the prefrontal cortex during memory retrieval; although this pattern is moderated by type of retrieval being performed (e.g. recall versus recognition) (Okada, Vilberg, & Rugg 2012).
Cognitive and neural correlates of errorless learning
Published in Catherine Haslam, Roy P.C. Kessels, Errorless Learning in Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 2018
Optimal learning is a key requirement to successfully acquire and adapt behaviour. This process relies heavily on our ability to associate a stimulus or action with a subsequent outcome that has a positive or a negative consequence; something known as associative learning. Although many theories of associative learning exist (see Friston, 2010), most assume that negative consequences provide a signal that certain stimuli or behaviours cause unfavourable outcomes. This is what happens in the context of making errors. When we make a mistake, like getting the name of someone you have recently met wrong, this might be the cause of some embarrassment or signal that you are someone who does not pay enough attention to these things. If we are to be adaptive (and perhaps show people that we care enough to remember their names), we need to reduce the occurrence of these negative outcomes. Consequently, we spend much of our time learning how to avoid these.
Fear Learning in Genital Pain: Toward a Biopsychosocial, Ecologically Valid Research and Treatment Model
Published in The Journal of Sex Research, 2023
A final concern regarding fear conditioning research in genital pain is that we cannot simply assume that exteroceptive aversive stimuli operate the same way as interoceptive stimuli in genital pain-related fear learning. Women with genital pain most often experience pain in the outer third part of the vagina, exactly where the largest pressure is experienced during penetration (Farmer et al., 2013). This means that vaginal sensations at initial penetration are experienced as most painful. A large range of aversive exteroceptive stimuli have been used in the context of fear conditioning, but interoceptive signals that stem from within the body are less commonly investigated (Meulders, 2020). Whereas most traditional fear conditioning research has relied on exteroceptive – often arbitrary – visual and auditory stimuli as CS and US, there is a growing body of research on interoceptive conditioning in which the CS, US, or both are endogenous events that reflect subjective changes in bodily signals (Meulders, 2020). There are indications that associative learning involving interoceptive stimuli operates differently than exteroceptive conditioning, yielding specific effects (e.g., rather unconscious, slower acquisition, more fixed, and resistant to extinction) on the physiological regulation of responses (Van Diest, 2019). Given that penetration pain is an interoceptive cue, research on fear of penetration pain may reveal unique insights that will further advance our knowledge on interoceptive fear conditioning and potentially reveal new targets for interoceptive exposure treatment.
Neurophysiological and cognitive impairment following repeated sports concussion injuries in retired professional rugby league players
Published in Brain Injury, 2018
Alan J. Pearce, Billymo Rist, Clare L. Fraser, Adrian Cohen, Jerome J. Maller
Visuomotor reaction time assessed both the participant’s reaction time (difference in time of stimulation presentation and initiation of movement by releasing the button on the press pad) and movement time (time from release of press pad to touch the target displayed on the tablet screen) (28). Spatial working memory required participants to find tokens revealed behind boxes, whilst remembering boxes previously containing found tokens, with scores calculated for total errors (28), as well as utilisation of a strategy for improving working memory performance (29). Paired associative learning measured the participant’s ability to learn new information via the locations of discrete patterns concealed behind boxes on the screen. Scores were calculated for errors detected at the 6-shape and 8-shape stages (28). Intra-extra dimensional shift assessed the participant’s visual discrimination with shifting and flexibility of attention by displaying two random figures. Participants learn which is the correct figure and maintains the correct response until the computer changes the figures (without notice). Scores were calculated for errors detected and the stages successfully completed (28).
Two types of sensorimotor strategies for whole-body movement in individuals with stroke: a pilot study
Published in Physiotherapy Theory and Practice, 2022
Yuko Kuramatsu, Yoshimi Suzukamo, Shin-Ichi Izumi
The behavior of DS participants could also be interpreted from the perspective of sensorimotor learning, which is divided into three hierarchical levels: sensory perceptual learning, sensorimotor associative learning, and motor skill learning (Makino, Hwang, Hendrick, and Komiyama, 2016). The first stage, sensory perceptual learning, involves selective extraction and efficient processing of sensory information to generate an appropriate action, leading to stabilization of optimal representations of behaviorally relevant sensory stimuli. The second stage, sensorimotor associative learning, requires linking particular aspects of environmental stimuli with specific actions. Although the basal ganglia including the putamen, which play an important role in this stage and the motor skill learning stage (third stage) were damaged in some of the NDS participants, the cerebellum can complement the role of the basal ganglia during sensorimotor skill learning (Doya, 2000). Furthermore, Perennou et al. (2008) showed that the functional role of thalamo-parietal projections may extend to processing of somesthetic graviceptive information and forming gravity orientation, which are required for antigravitational motor tasks. Therefore, DS participants might not perform the appropriate processing of sensory information because of their structural disorder, particularly with restricted vision. They might not form the representations of behaviorally relevant sensory stimuli and link them with an effective primary action by feedforward control (i.e. SM1). In contrast to NDS participants, DS participants were required to add more corrective movements by feedback control to achieve the goal.