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Deficient Phonological Processing in Disabled Readers Implicates Processing Deficits Beyond the Phonological Module
Published in Kees P. van den Bos, Linda S. Siegel, Dirk J. Bakker, David L. Share, Current Directions in Dyslexia Research, 2020
The phonological specificity of these findings is neatly accommodated within Baddeley’s (1990;1992) model of working memory. According to Baddeley, working memory consists of a central executive which supervises and coordinates a number of subsidiary slave systems, one of which, the “phonological loop”, is responsible for the processing of speech-based material. The available evidence clearly localizes poor readers’ difficulties in the phonological loop subsystem. This system is itself assumed to comprise two components; a phonological store capable of holding speech-based information for about one and a half to two seconds, and an articulatory control process which can maintain/recycle information in the phonological store via subvocal rehearsal. The articulatory control process is also equipped to convert visual information such as numerals, letters and nameable objects into a phonological code and register it in the phonological store.
Memory
Published in Andrea Utley, Motor Control, Learning and Development, 2018
The phonological loop is responsible for rehearsing and hence remembering speech-based information. In general, words of a shorter duration (i.e. take less time to rehearse) are remembered more than long words, e.g. bat, ball vs. player, referee. This suggests that the capacity of the phonological loop is determined by the temporal duration, and that memory span is determined by the rate of rehearsal. Furthermore, the phonological loop is vulnerable to what is known as the phonological similarity effect (Conrad and Hull 1964; Baddeley 1996). Recall of letters depends on how phonetically similar or how alike they sound. For example, recall of letters that are phonologically similar, e.g. TBVCE, are harder to remember compared to letters that are phonologically dissimilar, e.g. TQRLP. Research has considered how this may influence reading and spelling in children with and without learning difficulties (Wang et al. 2018).
Rehabilitation of Working Memory Disorders
Published in Barbara A. Wilson, Jill Winegardner, Caroline M. van Heugten, Tamara Ownsworth, Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 2017
Baddeley and Hitch's WM model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974) emerged from, and has been highly influential on, thinking about these capacity limitations. They applied the term ‘working memory’ in reference to a set of temporary cognitive stores in which information is maintained and manipulated. The original model comprised two discrete ‘slave systems’, the ‘phonological loop’ and the ‘visuo-spatial sketchpad’, along with a ‘central executive’ serving to control input to and from these slave systems. They could infer the limits of the slave systems by measuring, for example, the number of auditory digits or visual locations from a sequence that people could keep in mind (i.e. WM ‘span’) and obtain clues about how the systems work by examining what is remembered when information presented exceeds one's span (e.g. examining the limits of the recency effect in free recall). Further, central executive processes could be investigated by examining, for example, interference between the stores as information within each is manipulated. According to Baddeley (1996), the phonological loop has both storage and rehearsal subcomponents, and a capacity equivalent to what can be said in approximately two seconds. The ‘visuo-spatial sketchpad’ is described as having separate but related subsystems for visual and spatial information, and as being heavily reliant upon the central executive since the necessary visual imagery tasks are less automatic than phonological imagery.
The effects of diurnal variability and modality on false memories formation
Published in Chronobiology International, 2023
Justyna M. Olszewska, Amy E. Hodel, Anna Ceglarek, Magdalena Fafrowicz
Regarding phonologically similar stimuli, we should expect more errors in the morning than in the evening (Folkard 1979); however, it is unclear if stimuli presented in both modalities (visual and auditory) are equally subjected to these changes. Folkard’s (1979) justification for reliance on maintenance processing in the morning is based only on auditorily presented stimuli. If maintenance processing is the primary component contributing to diurnal variations, then more errors should also be noticed for items presented visually. However, another explanation includes Baddeley’s working memory model specific to the phonological loop. The phonological loop consists of a phonological store responsible for holding acoustic information and the articulatory control process, responsible for rehearsing verbal material (Baddeley 1992, 2010, 2012; Baddeley and Hitch 1974). This system can maintain auditorily presented material by subvocal rehearsing, process visually presented verbal material and register it in a phonological store by subvocalization (Baddeley 1992). Therefore, we speculate that possible differences between morning and evening hours for visually presented stimuli could be due to the need to convert written material into an articulatory code so that it can enter the phonological store (Baddeley 1986). However, converting visual material will likely result in a stronger memory trace, thus, consistent with Folkard (1979), we predict increased rates of false memories for acoustically related lures presented auditorily but not visually.
Working Memory and Manual Dexterity in Dyslexic Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Published in Developmental Neuropsychology, 2023
Sara Edith Souza de Assis Leão, Guilherme Menezes Lage, Renan Pedra de Souza, Nathálya Gardênia de Holanda Marinho Nogueira, Ângela Maria Vieira Pinheiro
Another confounding factor for the diagnosis of dyslexia can be twice-exceptional, that is, children with giftedness but who present reading learning disability as shown in the Lyman, Sanders, Abbott, and Berninger (2017), whose research investigated reading problems in this population. The results showed that gifted children with reading learning deficits had worse performance in language skills, accuracy, and visuospatial working memory tasks than the group of gifted children with no reading deficits. In addition, the gifted group with reading deficits also had problems in orthographic and morphological coding, spelling loop, and shifts in attention when compared to the control group. These findings provide evidence that giftedness can mask learning difficulties. Furthermore, some components of impaired working memory varied between diagnostic groups. For example, impairments in verbal working memory, including a specific deficit in the phonological loop were frequently observed in dyslexia, but never in dysgraphia alone (Berninger, Richards, & Abbott, 2015) and in the DCD group (Maziero et al., 2020).
The effect of non-verbal working memory on graphic symbol selection
Published in Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 2022
According to one popular theory, two main components drive working memory: the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). The phonological loop temporarily stores and maintains verbal information through a subvocal rehearsal system. The visuospatial sketchpad stores and integrates non-verbal information, including spatial, visual (expressed in color and shape), and kinesthetic information. Some researchers argue that the type of information in the visuospatial sketchpad determines non-verbal working memory storage (Baddeley, 2003; Logie, 1986; Smyth & Pendleton, 1990). Baddeley (2000, 2003) suggested that the verbal working memory process (i.e., phonological loop) and the non-verbal working memory process (i.e., visuospatial sketchpad) are controlled and integrated by a central executive function and that the verbal and non-verbal information are combined in the episodic buffer with multi-dimensional information that has been stored in long-term memory.