China
Africa
Explore chapters and articles related to this topic
Paper 2
Published in Amanda Rabone, Benedict Thomson, Nicky Dineen, Vincent Helyar, Aidan Shaw, The Final FRCR, 2020
Amanda Rabone, Benedict Thomson, Nicky Dineen, Vincent Helyar, Aidan Shaw
Wernicke encephalopathy is caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency and is typically seen in alcoholics or those who self-neglect. It presents with the classic triad of confusion, ataxia and ophthalmoplegia. Korsakoff psychosis is the chronic form of the condition and is characterised by confabulation and memory loss. MRI findings include symmetrical high signal on T2 and FLAIR sequences with post-contrast enhancement in the mammillary bodies, basal ganglia, paraventricular/medial thalamic regions, brain stem and periaqueductal grey matter. Korsakoff syndrome is associated with mammillary body atrophy and dilatation of the third ventricle.
The Limbic System
Published in Jay A. Goldstein, Chronic Fatigue Syndromes, 2020
Hippocampus. Although the hippocampus receives afferents from numerous structures, its efferents are generally considered to be in the fornix, which terminates in the mammillary body. There are also direct hippocampal efferents to the amygdala and septum. Via the fornix, there are indirect projections to the medial preoptic area, the anterior hypothalamus, the lateral hypothalamic area, the ventral tegmental area, and the central gray matter of the midbrain.12 The mammillary body has diffuse projections in the brain. Hippocampal efferents are said to reach widespread areas of the cerebral cortex and amygdala in the rhesus monkey. These fibers cross to the contralateral limbic zone through commissures, as is true for those of the amygdala and piriform cortex. Mirror images of unilateral limbic lesions have been reported in the contralateral hemisphere. Although the hippocampus has been implicated in emotion and neuro-immune-endocrine regulation, its main function is in the making of memories, and in this mode virtually its entire sensory input is paralimbic. Because of this connection, there is a distinct motivational component to learning. Anxiety may be mediated in the dorsal hippocampus through the septo-hippocampal circuit, since both diazepam and tandospirone, a 5HT 1A agonist, have anti-anxiety effects when injected into the dorsal hippocampus.13 The hippo-campus may also be involved in depression, particularly in elderly depressed patients, in whom magnetic resonance imaging (MM) revealed significantly shortened Ti spin lattice relaxation times.14
Distribution and Characteristics of Brain Dopamine
Published in Nira Ben-Jonathan, Dopamine, 2020
The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and above the pituitary gland (Figure 3.8). It is situated in the ventral diencephalon and is composed of many fiber tracts and discrete nuclei that are positioned symmetrically around the third ventricle. In midsagittal section, the human hypothalamus is bound anteriorly by the lamina terminalis, posteriorly by the posterior commissure at the caudal limit of the mammillary body, and superiorly by the hypothalamic sulcus. The lateral boundaries on each side of the hypothalamus include the internal capsule, cerebral peduncle, and subthalamus. Ventrally, the hypothalamus forms the floor of the third ventricle. Its inferior surface, called the tuber cinereum, contains the median eminence, one of seven circumventricular areas of the brain that have permeable capillaries and are not protected by the BBB.
Emerging Symptomatic Treatment of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE): a narrative review
Published in Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 2023
Carlo Rossi, Nicole Campese, Carlo Colosimo
CTE pathological diagnosis requires, according to the Second NINDS/NBIB Consensus Meeting, the ‘presence of p-tau aggregates in neurons, astrocytes, and cell processes around small vessels in an irregular pattern of the cortical sulci’ [28]. CTE was previously staged into four categories based on the spread through the cerebral cortex (stage I-II) to subcortical areas including olfactory bulbs, hypothalamus, mammillary bodies, nucleus basalis of Meynert, substantia nigra, dorsal and medial raphe nuclei at stage III and throughout the cerebrum, brainstem, cerebellum, and, occasionally, spinal cord at stage IV [29]. Recently, the staging system has been revised according to the two categories of ‘low CTE’ or ‘high CTE’ [28]. Supportive macroscopic non-tau related neuropathological features of CTE are a disproportionate dilatation of the third ventricle, septal abnormalities, mammillary body atrophy, and contusion or other signs of previous traumatic injury [27].
Measurement of Fetal Mesencephalon and Pons Via Ultrasonographic Cross Sectional Imagining
Published in Fetal and Pediatric Pathology, 2018
Ruiqi Yang, Rui Li, Xuejuan Liu, Limei Fan, Jialing Zhang, Libo Wang, Hong Teng
The mesencephalon anteroposterior diameter (MAD) and mesencephalon transverse diameter (MTD) were measured on ultrasonographic images showing a cross-sectional view of the fetal head. In this cross-sectional plane, the cerebral falx, mammillary body, and mesencephalon were visible in an anterior to posterior direction. The mesencephalon appeared surrounded by interpedun cular cistern, the cruralcistern, and quadrigeminal cistern. Fetal MAD was obtained using an electronic caliper to measure the distance from anterior border of cerebral peduncle to mesencephalic aqueduct. Fetal MTD was measured by placing caliper on two cerebral peduncle borders, so as to encompass the maximum cross-sectional diameter of mesencephalon (Figure 1). Fetal pons anteroposterior diameter (PAD) and pons transverse diameter (PTD) were measured on ultrasonographic images obtained at a slightly lower cross-sectional plane than the one used for mesencephalon measurements. In the image, suprasellar cistern, pons, and forth ventricle were clearly observed. Fetal PAD was measured from pons anterior edge to the fourth ventricle edge. Fetal PTD was measured between lateral borders of pons, so as to encompass the maximum cross-sectional diameter of the pons (Figure 2). Figure 3 shows a diagram of a sagittal section of the brain indicating two cross-sectional planes used to generate ultrasonographic images, on which we measured the mesencephalon and pons diameters. At least two separate images of fetal mesencephalon- and pons-cross-sections were obtained for each fetus. A Philips iU22 ultrasound scanner with a 5-MHz transabdominal transducer was used for all measurements.
MRI evaluation of progressive supranuclear palsy: differentiation from Parkinson’s disease and multiple system atrophy
Published in Neurological Research, 2019
Cenk Eraslan, Ahmet Acarer, Serkan Guneyli, Esra Akyuz, Elcin Aydin, Zafer Colakoglu, Omer Kitis, Mehmet Cem Calli
The length of the midbrain tegmentum (MBTegm) was measured on an axial T1-weighted image using Sung’s method [11]. Briefly, an axial image encompassing the mid-mammillary body was chosen, and the distance from the interpeduncular fossa to the center of the aqueduct was measured (Figure 1(e)).