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Obesity and Weight Management
Published in Gia Merlo, Kathy Berra, Lifestyle Nursing, 2023
Prior to the widespread dissemination of the NHLBI OEI guidelines and in the WHO 1995 technical report, obesity was defined as “a condition with excessive fat accumulation in the body to the extent that the health and well-being are adversely affected.” (WHO, 1995). Accumulation of body fat, however, was and remains difficult to measure accurately, and there is no easily available method for routine clinical use (Pi-Sunyer, 2000). The facts that BMI, which is based on total body weight, cannot distinguish fat mass from lean mass, ectopic fat (visceral and liver) from subcutaneous fat, or other differences in body composition, including metabolic factors inherent to an individual’s natural physique or somatotype (of which three extremes have been defined: Endomorphic, or round, fat type; mesomorphic, or muscular type; ectomorphic, or slim, linear type) or effects of steroid and other hormones, including leptin, that underlie sex differences in regional adiposity, which include “essential fat” stores that are important to premenopausal women’s reproductive health (Mauvais-Jarvis, 2017; Mathew, 2018), means that a person who does not have “excess” body fat may be classified as “obese” with a BMI of 30 kg/m2 or higher.
Intellectual Impairments
Published in Elizabeth Broad, Sports Nutrition for Paralympic Athletes, 2019
Individuals with Down syndrome are shorter than the general population by up to 20 cm, or more than 2 standard deviations below the mean (Angelopoulou et al. 1999; Baptista et al. 2005), primarily due to disproportionate growth retardation of the legs (Barden 2003). As a consequence, growth curves in children and adolescents have been developed specifically for Down syndrome (Hayes and Batshaw 1993) and the validity of body mass index (BMI) as an indicator of obesity may be questionable. Using BMI as a measure of obesity, Melville et al. (2005) found a greater incidence of obesity in adult women with Down syndrome (in fact, only 26% of the women were in the normal range) but not in men compared with non-DS intellectually impaired adults, and higher BMI in DS women but not men were reported compared to non–intellectually impaired controls (Angelopoulou et al. 1999; Baptista et al. 2005). Bronks and Parker (1985) also undertook somatotype ratings in a DS population which classed them as predominantly mesomorphic-endomorphs, although this is not surprising considering the relative shortness of their legs would result in low ectomorphy ratings.
The Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement of Body Fat Content
Published in Roy J. Shephard, Obesity: A Kinesiologist’s Perspective, 2018
In general, investigators have continued to adopt a three- or four-fold qualitative categorization of body type, commonly distinguishing (although under differing names) the lean ectomorph, the muscular mesomorph, and the fat endomorph. Thus, in 1797, Halle (cited by Eysenk [21]) described “abdominal” (fat), “muscular,” “thoracic” (long and slender), and “cephalic” (large-headed) body builds, and Wells [76] spoke of “vital”, “motive”, and “mental” body types. Kretschmer [35] distinguished the body build of the long, thin, and weak “asthenic/leptosome” from that of the muscular, large-boned athlete and the short, squat, and rounded “pyknic” somatotype (although Kretschmer also recognized the dilemma that a large proportion of the population presented an amalgam of two or more of these body types).
The effects of body size and training environment on the physical performance of adolescent basketball players: the INEX study
Published in Annals of Human Biology, 2023
Eduardo Guimarães, Adam D. G. Baxter-Jones, A. Mark Williams, Fernando Tavares, Manuel A. Janeira, José Maia
Allometric scaling provides an insightful approach to interpret differences in physical performance developmental trends that are interrelated with changes in body size, shape, and composition (Beunen et al. 2002; Nevill et al. 2009). For example, allometric scaling has been used previously to examine inter-individual variation in anaerobic power (Carvalho et al. 2011), aerobic fitness (Carvalho et al. 2013), and agility (Carvalho et al. 2017) in youth basketball players. The findings suggest that the scaling factors are apparently exclusive for each physical performance component. However, these are cross-sectional reports that relied on separate allometric models considering height, or weight, or fat-free mass, as independent and mutually exclusive scaling factors. As such, they were not able, for example, to estimate any stature-to-body mass ratio to compare with the Reciprocal Ponderal Index (RPI) to determine an overall description of body shape or physique (in somatotype terminology this suggests an ectomorphic dominant physique) that may be best linked with physical performance unfolding during puberty. Furthermore, it has been systematically reported that somatotype is linked to physical performance (Carter and Heath 1990; Suchomel 2002; Kubo et al. 2022).
Correlation of body composition parameters and anthropometric somatotypes with Prakriti body types among the Meitei adults of Manipur, India
Published in Annals of Human Biology, 2021
Henry Konjengbam, Yumnam Leona Devi, Sanjenbam Yaiphaba Meitei
Body composition parameters (body fat percent, body fat mass, and body weight) were measured using the Tanita Body composition analyser; body height was measured using a stadiometer. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as weight in kilograms divided by square of the height in metres and was categorised into four groups according to the Asia-Pacific cut-off points (Pan and Yeh 2008). Body fat percentages and body fat mass were classified based on the Tanita classification (Tanita 2012). Skinfold callipers were used to measure tricep thickness, subscapular, supraspinal, and calf skinfolds. Humerus breadth and femur breadth were also measured through a sliding calliper. The Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype was identified using the Heath-Carter somatotype rating form (Carter 2002).
Four Weeks of Neuromuscular Training Improve Static and Dynamic Postural Control in Overweight and Obese Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Published in Journal of Motor Behavior, 2020
Eduardo Guzmán-Muñoz, Sergio Sazo-Rodriguez, Yeny Concha-Cisternas, Pablo Valdés-Badilla, Carlos Lira-Cea, Geraldine Silva-Moya, Ricardo Henríquez, Tuillang Yuing Farias, Igor Cigarroa, Marcelo Castillo-Retamal, Guillermo Méndez-Rebolledo
Poor postural control in overweight and obese children has been attributed to different causes. Anthropometric changes caused by weight gain would be the main factor in the loss of postural balance, affecting the muscular response (Guzmán-Muñoz et al., 2019). It has been reported that children with higher BMI, larger waist circumference, accumulation of adipose mass, and endomorphic somatotype profile show low performance in static and dynamic balance tests (Guzmán-Muñoz et al., 2019). It is believed that excess fat in the abdominal region in overweight and obese people alters the body’s geometry, generating an anterior displacement of the COM and, therefore, greater oscillation of the COP. This causes the motor system to require greater ankle torque to control postural oscillations in the sagittal plane, and the risk of falling increases when subjects are exposed to disturbances (Blaszczyk, Cieslinska-Swider, Plewa, Zahorska-Markiewicz, & Markiewicz, 2009). Another explanation is based on the structural changes generated by excess weight. Overweight children have flatter feet because of the development of a fat pad in the midfoot area. This change in plantar support would modify the weight support areas of the foot and presumably would generate proprioceptive changes at the plantar level that would alter the mechanism of postural control, increasing postural oscillations (D'Hondt et al., 2011). For this reason, the neuromuscular training proposed in our research includes motor challenges and proprioceptive inputs with the aim of improving muscle responses and, therefore, postural control.