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Fetal programming
Published in Hung N. Winn, Frank A. Chervenak, Roberto Romero, Clinical Maternal-Fetal Medicine Online, 2021
Katherine E. Pelch, Jana L. Allison, Susan C. Nagel
In humans, exposure to steroidal estrogens is associated with increased breast cancer risk, and xenoestrogen exposure has been associated with increased breast cancer risk in adulthood. As discussed above, increased fetal estrogen exposure, endogenous or exogenous, is associated with increased adult breast cancer risk, while decreased exposure is associated with reduced risk. Developmental DES exposure has clearly been associated with increased breast cancer risk (71). While it is difficult to study unknown exposures with long-latency diseases 40 to 70 years later, developmental xenoestrogen exposure has been associated with altered mammary gland development and cancer risk in laboratory animals (107,149–161).
Breast
Published in Victor A. Bernstam, Pocket Guide to GENE LEVEL DIAGNOSTICS in Clinical Practice, 2019
Other genes, such as c-myc and Ha-ras, when inserted into transgenic mice do not interfere with normal mammary gland development, whereas in the presence of mutated, but not normal, neu oncogene normal mammary gland development does not occur. The chromosomal studies discussed above suggested that some of the well-known tumor suppressor genes (RB-1, p53, DCC) may also be involved. In the following sections, pertinent findings will be summarized that can potentially be used for clinical purposes.
Reproductive System and Mammary Gland
Published in Pritam S. Sahota, James A. Popp, Jerry F. Hardisty, Chirukandath Gopinath, Page R. Bouchard, Toxicologic Pathology, 2018
Justin D. Vidal, Charles E. Wood, Karyn Colman, Katharine M. Whitney, Dianne M. Creasy
The development and structure of the mammary gland are highly dependent upon the interactions of a number of steroid and protein hormones and growth factors. Much of our knowledge of the endocrine regulation of mammary gland development has been derived from rodent models in which hormones were administered alone or in combination to animals from which various endocrine organs have been removed. More recently, the use of mouse models in which hormone or hormone receptor genes are disrupted has contributed greatly to refining our understanding of the molecular basis of mammary growth (Cardiff et al. 2007; Rudmann et al. 2012).
Pharmacological strategies for sexual recovery in men undergoing antipsychotic treatment
Published in Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 2022
Tommaso B. Jannini, Andrea Sansone, Rodolfo Rossi, Giorgio Di Lorenzo, Massimiliano Toscano, Alberto Siracusano, Emmanuele A. Jannini
Prl is a protein hormone that is largely produced by the lactotroph cells of the anterior pituitary gland, having several physiological properties that have only partially been identified at present [43]. Besides its role in lactation and mammary gland development, Prl is also involved in the regulation of metabolic homeostasis [44,45] and immune response [46]. Prl is also unique among pituitary hormones due to the inhibitory, rather than stimulatory, control: as a matter of fact, dopamine constitutively inhibits Prl secretion by acting on the D2 dopamine receptor [47] expressed on the membrane of the lactotroph cells, activation of which results in a reduction of Prl exocytosis and gene expression by a variety of intracellular signaling mechanisms, although a stimulatory effect has been reported for thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) [48–50] and serotonin [50–52]. It is therefore unsurprising that drugs antagonizing the D2 receptor, by impairing the inhibitory effect exerted by dopamine, lead to increased Prl levels.
Cross talk of vascular endothelial growth factor and neurotrophins in mammary gland development
Published in Growth Factors, 2020
Kamini Dangat, Amrita Khaire, Sadhana Joshi
The current review describes the role of neurotrophins and angiogenic factors in mammary gland development. Angiogenesis in the mammary gland alveolar cells plays an important role in milk production. Both VEGF and neurotrophins are known to play a significant role in influencing placental angiogenesis. It is likely that there is a cross talk between these growth factors and together they regulate angiogenesis in the mammary gland. It is therefore necessary to undertake animal studies to understand the possible molecular mechanisms through which neurotrophins and angiogenic factors influence mammary gland development. It is also essential to understand their role in pregnancy complications like preeclampsia, GDM and adverse birth outcomes like preterm birth and IUGR. These studies will be of significance in understanding factors which regulate mammary gland development to optimise milk production. It is well known that during the first six months of life, breast milk is the only nutritional source for the healthy growth of infants and can play a key role in improving the neurodevelopmental outcome in infants.
Thymoquinone ameliorates obesity-induced metabolic dysfunction, improves reproductive efficiency exhibiting a dose-organ relationship
Published in Systems Biology in Reproductive Medicine, 2019
Seba Harphoush, Guoqing Wu, Gao Qiuli, Margaret Zaitoun, Maissam Ghanem, Yonghui Shi, Guowei Le
Milk synthesis and secretion are the main functions of the mammary gland. At the onset of pregnancy, proliferation, and differentiation of the epithelium begin to form grape-shaped milk secretion system called alveoli. The density of the epithelial area increases compared to the adipose area revealing alveolar lumens structures and expanded ducts within the parenchymal tissue. After parturition and during lactation, the alveolar luminal area expands, milk is produced by luminal secretory cells, and stored within the lumen of alveoli (Richert et al. 2000; Anderson et al. 2007). The architecture of the mammary gland epithelium can be easily observed using whole mount at all stages of the development (Plante et al. 2011a), while measuring the alveolar lumens area is a clear evidence of lactation establishing and evolution (Anderson et al. 2007). These two tests can give important insights into mammary gland development and function.