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Obstetrics and Gynecology
Published in James M. Rippe, Manual of Lifestyle Medicine, 2021
Human breast milk is a physiological form of nutrition for infants and young children. Even though formula feeding is widespread worldwide, a significant body of literature and research strongly supports infant and maternal benefits from breastfeeding. Both ACOG and AAP state that breastfeeding ensures the best possible health outcomes for the child. Both of these organizations recommend exclusive breastfeeding for at least the first six months of life and continue breastfeeding as complementary foods are introduced to the infant’s first year of life or longer if mutually desired by the women and her infant. The World Health Organization (WHO) endorses breastfeeding for the first two years of life. Healthy People 2020 guidelines establish a goal of 82% of babies to have been breastfed and a continuation rate of 61% at six months and 34% at one year.
Role of hormones in human breast development: the menopausal breast
Published in Barry G. Wren, Progress in the Management of the Menopause, 2020
The human breast, which at birth is a rudimentary bilateral organ, develops as the result of a combination of external and internal factors, all of which are intimately linked to the female reproductive system1. These factors, in turn, are modified by cultural, socioeconomic and environmental influences. Thus, in modern industrialized societies the fundamental role of the breast, nourishment of the offspring, becomes progressively less relevant, but at the same time this organ acquires new relevance because it constitutes the source of the most frequent malignancy in women. The higher risk of developing breast cancer has been associated with lengthened ovarian function, such as that occurring with early menarche and late menopause2–8. The increased risk associated with nulliparity or late first full-term pregnancy, or the protection afforded by early first full-term pregnancy are an indication that reproductive events, mainly through the hormonal influences of the new endocrine organ represented by the placenta, play important roles in modulating the susceptibility of the breast to undergo malignant transformation1.
Endocrine, paracrine and intracrine mechanisms of growth regulation in normal and malignant breast epithelium
Published in A. R. Genazzani, Hormone Replacement Therapy and Cancer, 2020
J. R. Pasqualini, G. S. Chetrite
Despite the fact that the development of human breast starts during fetal life, the breast is one of the few organs of the body that is not completely developed at birth. Its growth, with lobule formation, occurs during puberty, but the development and differentiation are completed only at the end of puberty and regress in the post-menopausal period. During the menstrual cycle, the volume and morphology of the breast are functions of the fluctuations of gonadal steroids (mainly estrogens and progesterone). Maximal epithelial mitosis is found between 22 and 26 days of the cycle, which corresponds to the high serum levels of estradiol and progesterone19. During pregnancy, it is suggested that the elevated values of circulating progesterone are responsible for the induction of lobular-alveolar development, in order to prepare the breast for lactation20.
The relationship between using estrogen and/or progesterone and the risk of mammary gland hyperplasia in women: a meta-analysis
Published in Gynecological Endocrinology, 2022
Zhang Yan, Li Yun-Yun, Tao Zhou, Chen Li-Rong, Yang Xiao-Li, Lai Yong
The human breast constitutes of network duct, line with epithelial cells, and ducts had many branches which is the lesion location of MGH [14]. The regulation of estrogen receptor and progestogen receptor, endocrine disorder, gene expression, environment and lifestyle, and the pressure of occupation are the reasons for MGH [22]. Most scholars believed that the endocrine disorder was the major reason for MGH [17,23]. By the pathway of ‘pituitary-hypothalamus-gonad’ regulation the secretion of estrogen, and progestogen, increases or reduce the level of estrogen, and progestogen can destroy the balance mammary gland cell proliferation and apoptosis [16,23,24]. Estrogen and progestogen combined with estrogen receptor α and progestogen receptor A respectively can stimulate mammary gland cell proliferation [22]. Then they act on TDLUs to cause gland duct expansion, adenomatosis, and acinus increase and finally cause MGH for pathological change [14,17].
Short-term treatment outcomes and safety of two representative brands of the fifth-generation silicone gel-filled breast implants in Korea
Published in Journal of Plastic Surgery and Hand Surgery, 2021
Dong Seung Moon, Woo Sik Choi, Ho Chan Kim, Jeong Pil Jeong, Jung Youp Sung, Jae Hong Kim
The emergence of the fifth-generation breast implant has been justified based on demerits of conventional anatomical devices [1,2]. As compared with round breast implants, anatomical devices are advantageous in providing a more natural appearance. But their disadvantages limit their applicability to an implant-based breast augmentation [3,4]. First, patients receiving an anatomical breast implant are vulnerable to rotation and displacement, for which they should undergo revision surgery or reoperation [1,3,5,6]. Second, with the introduction of a macrotextured surface, there have been improvements in the adherence of a device to the tissue. But patients are at increased risks of developing double capsule or late seroma [7–10]. Third, the firmness and rigidity of an implant make it difficult to adjust to the natural movement of human breast [11,12]. It has been therefore imperative that a novel type of the fifth-generation silicone gel-filled breast implant be developed.
A complete proteomic profile of human and bovine milk exosomes by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry
Published in Expert Review of Proteomics, 2021
Kanchan Manohar Vaswani, Hassendrini Peiris, Yong Qin Koh, Rebecca J. Hill, Tracy Harb, Buddhika J. Arachchige, Jayden Logan, Sarah Reed, Peter S. W. Davies, Murray D. Mitchell
The results of this study are powerful as they highlight various important proteins in exosomes from both species. Although the benefits of feeding human breast milk to infants exceed that of cows’ milk, milk from both species are highly utilized in feeding of human offspring. Recently, it has been shown that the exosomes deliver cargos in dietary vesicles from bovine milk to non-bovine species [39,40]. The uptake of bovine milk exosomes into human intestinal cells, is mediated by endocytosis and depends on cell and exosome surface glycoproteins in the human recipient [39]. Hence, the knowledge of the common and unique proteins of these exosomes will shed light on ways of improving infant formula quality for mothers who can not breastfeed. This will translate to the enhancement of infant gut health and the improved knowledge for the dairy food industry. As exosome proteomics is a relatively new field, there is a paucity of data on how these exosomal proteins function when ingested by infants in the via milk, a glycoprotein that functions to provide structure and rigidity. Since offspring of mammals rely heavily on milk for their main nutrient supply, it will be important to study how the exosomes can be used to improve the nutrient availability and quality of milk (and formula) while also opening the possibility of loading the exosomes with nutraceuticals to improve nutrition in babies who cannot breastfeed or babies who are born preterm.