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Microalgal Biodiesel Production
Published in Ozcan Konur, Biodiesel Fuels Based on Edible and Nonedible Feedstocks, Wastes, and Algae, 2021
Ramachandran Sivaramakrishnan, Aran Incharoensakdi
Various feedstocks are available for biodiesel production, for example, plant or vegetable oils, microbial oil, and animal fats. Different oils have different lipid compositions and purity and exhibit different fuel properties (Mahdavi et al., 2015). The selection of feedstock is very important for biodiesel production because it may affect the production cost, biodiesel yield, and fuel properties. Mostly, the current feedstocks for biodiesel production are classified according to their nature, such as edible, nonedible, and waste oil (Demirbas and Demirbas, 2011). Feedstock selection also depends on region and environmental conditions, as well as on availability and a country’s economic aspects. For instance, Canada used canola oil as biodiesel feedstock, whereas the USA and Brazil prefer soybean oil for the biodiesel feedstock. European countries like the UK, Finland, Italy, and Germany used rapeseed oil for biodiesel production. Jatropha and karanja oils are preferably used as biodiesel feedstock in India, whereas Malaysia and Indonesia prefer palm and coconut oils.
The potential of biodiesel production from WWTP Wastes
Published in Cândida Vilarinho, Fernando Castro, Margarida Gonçalves, Ana Luísa Fernando, Wastes: Solutions, Treatments and Opportunities III, 2019
R.M. Salgado, A.M.T. Mata, L. Epifâneo, A.M. Barreiros
Vegetable oils, edible or non-edible, are the main source of biodiesel, according to a review carried out by Sajjadi et al. (2016). The same authors indicate that more than 95% of the world biodiesel is produced from edible vegetable oils, being rapeseed (84%) the main source of edible oil, followed by sunflower (13%), palm (1%), soybean and others (2%). The most commonly used edible oil in EU Member States is rapeseed oil (70.2%), but oil from soybean (5.8%), palm (5.0%), are also used (Ecofys, 2014). The use of raw material waste like animal fat waste (Kirubakaran & Selvan 2018), waste cooking oil from the restaurant industry (Abed, et al. 2018), microalgae (Chen et al. 2018a, Shomal et al. 2019) have been extensively investigated. Biodiesel production from wastes like cooking oil or animal fats is gaining a foothold, and more capacity is expected in the coming years. In European Union 11.4% of biodiesel is produced from cooking oil and 4.6% from animal fat (Ecofys, 2014). The increased demand for animal fats to produce biodiesel has resulted in the price of animal fats increasing significantly and there are also difficulties in obtaining the enough waste cooking oil to ensure production based on this waste source.
Sustainable Production of Biofuels—A Green Spark: Technology, Economics, and Environmental Issues
Published in V. Sivasubramanian, Bioprocess Engineering for a Green Environment, 2018
Rajarathinam Ravikumar, Muthuvelu Kirupa Sankar, Manickam Nareshkumar, Moorthy Ranjithkumar
Biodiesel production is the process of producing biofuel, biodiesel, through the chemical reactions transesterification and esterification. This involves vegetable or animal fats and oils being reacted with short-chain alcohols. The alcohols used should be of low molecular weight; because of its low cost, ethanol is one of the most frequently used alcohols. However, greater biodiesel conversion can be achieved using methanol. Although the transesterification reaction can be catalyzed by either acids or bases, the most common means of production is base-catalyzed transesterification. This path has lower reaction times and catalyst costs than those posed by acid catalysis. However, alkaline catalysis has the disadvantage of its high sensitivity to both water and free fatty acids (FFAs) present in the oils (Roschat et al., 2012).
Selective glycerol esterification to monolaurate over ZrO2/MCM-41 catalysts prepared using impregnation and precipitation methods
Published in Chemical Engineering Communications, 2022
Ahmad Zuhairi Abdullah, Natasha Ghazali, Peng Yong Hoo, Nor Irwin Basir
Increasing demand for greener and cleaner alternative energy sources has resulted in an increase in biodiesel production worldwide (Abdullah et al. 2009). As a consequence, glycerol as the main by-product in the biodiesel production process is produced in mass quantity. It simply exceeds its demand in the industry despite its various industrial usages (Binhayeeding et al. 2017; Kong et al. 2016). This excessive supply has caused its price to depress to the extent it is now considered a waste to get rid of (Hamerski et al. 2016). Thus, the production of value-added glycerol derivative products is an important approach to deal with this surplus. Wu et al. (2011) tried to convert glycerol to hydrogen, ethanol, and diols such as 1,3-propanediol and 2,3-butanediol that have significantly higher market value compared to glycerol itself. Other derivatives of significance are monoglycerides. The production of monoglycerides through direct esterification of glycerol with fatty acid has been attempted earlier. These substances have very high demand as emulsifiers, stabilizers, and conditioning agents in the food industry (Kong et al. 2018), as nonionic surfactants in the cosmetics industry (Kumar et al. 2019), and as antimicrobial compounds against pro-inflammatory cytokines in the pharmaceutical industry (Márquez-Alvarez et al. 2004). In these applications, monoglycerides are more desirable than di- or triglycerides.
Enzymatic fatty acid ethyl esters synthesis using acid soybean oil and liquid lipase formulation
Published in Chemical Engineering Communications, 2020
Kelly Cristina Nascimento Rodrigues Pedro, Igor Estolano Pinto Ferreira, Cristiane Assumpção Henriques, Marta Antunes Pereira Langone
The conventional process of biodiesel production is based on the transesterification of animal fat and vegetable oils that have to be refined with alcohols employing basic catalysts as alkoxides, carbonates, potassium, or sodium hydroxides (Hama and Kondo, 2013; Guldhe et al., 2014; Cesarini et al., 2015). High yields are obtained at short reaction times. However, the negative aspects of the process are its catalyst and product recovery, wastewater treatment, and the indispensable use of refined oils, known as first generation biodiesel feedstock, which are expensive, increasing process costs (Jegannathan et al., 2010; Hama and Kondo, 2013; Christopher et al., 2014; Guldhe et al., 2014; Pedersen et al., 2014).
Clove as antioxidant additive in diesel–biodiesel fuel blends in diesel engines
Published in International Journal of Green Energy, 2019
Nagarajan Jeyakumar, Bose Narayanasamy
The most suitable method for biodiesel production is transesterification of triglycerides with alcohol (methanol or ethanol) in the presence of catalysts. The FFA content of cotton seed oil was found to be 11.5% (Wan, Pakarinen, and Wakelyn 1998). Acid esterification is needed to increase the yield from the oil containing high FFA content (Sathiyamoorthi and Sankaranarayanan 2016). The extracted oil from cotton seed was filtered by means of cloth to remove dirt and other materials. The raw oil was then heated to its boiling point temperature to remove the water constituents present in it and was then cooled to room temperature. 200 mL of methanol is mixed with about 1 L of cotton seed oil which was then preheated to about 50ºC and stirred for few minutes. The FFA content was decreased by the addition of 0.5% H2SO4by weight to the mixture and stirring was continued for about 60 min at 60ºC. The FFA value of raw cotton seed oil in the present work was found to be 46.29% which was reduced to 0.95% after acid esterification. The remaining H2SO4 and the excess quantity of alcohol together with the impurities collected at the top surface are removed in a separating funnel. The layer collected at the bottom is separated for alkaline esterification which is carried out with the addition of 200-mL methanol and base catalyst such as NaOH, 0.5% by weight. The mixture is then stirred for about an hour and allowed to settle for about 24 h which yields biodiesel and glycerol at the lowest layer (Rashedul et al. 2015). The biodiesel obtained was separated and washed to remove the impurities. The biodiesel samples chosen for study were pure biodiesel and a 20% blend with diesel named as B100 and B20, respectively.