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III Resource Use
Published in Susan E. M. Selke, Packaging and the Environment, 1994
Ordinary red and brown sand cannot be used for glass-making due to the impurities, such as iron, which impart color. Deposits of suitable light-colored sands for glass are still relatively plentiful. Primary United States sources are bank sands in New Jersey, and sandstones in the Alleghenies and the Mississippi Valley. Illinois is one of the largest producers of glass sand. It is estimated that about 90 percent of the high quality sand produced in the the United States is used by the glass industry, amounting to 13-14 million metric tons per year (Boyd and Thompson, 1980). Soda ash is relatively rare and expensive. The two major United States deposits are in Green River, Wyoming, and Trona, California. Soda ash can also be manufactured from salt (sodium chloride) by the Solvay process, and salt is plentiful, but this source is declining, with most United States soda ash production now coming from Wyoming (Boyd and Thompson, 1980). While in 1980 the United States container-glass industry consumed 40 percent of domestic production of soda ash, by 1990 this figure had decreased to about 20 percent, and the United States had become a major exporter of soda ash (Boyd and Thompson, 1980; Greek, 1991). The United States glass industry as a whole uses about 40 percent of soda ash production (Greek, 1991).
Dynamic Phenomena
Published in William G. Pariseau, rd Edition, 2017
In the case that the stress is hydrostatic, so the three normal stresses are equal and the three shear stresses vanish, then u=(32E)(σ2)−(3vE)(σ2)=[3(1−2v)2E]σ2=(12K)σ2 where σ is the hydrostatic stress assumed and K is the bulk modulus of the rockmass. When Poisson’s ratio is 1/4, K = (2/3)E. If E =1.5(106) psi, then K =1.0(106) psi which may be used to make a rough estimate of strain energy density as a function of depth. Assuming 1 psi/foot of depth, u = (h)2 (10−6) in − lbf /in3 where h is depth in feet. At a depth of 1,000 ft, u = 1 in − lbf /in3 or 144 ft-lbf/ft3 (6.89 kN-m/m3). Figure 9.13 shows strain energy as a function of rock mass volume with depth as a parameter. The scales are logarithmic in the figure. Also shown in the figure are earthquake magnitudes M from 2 to 5 and associated with energies obtained from the relationship log(U) =9.4+2.14 M where energy U is in ergs. Note: U (ft-lbf)=7.374(10−8)U (ergs). Very large rock bursts have magnitudes near 4 (strong). The largest burst in North America recorded to date had magnitude 5.2. This burst occurred in 1995 in a trona mine. Trona is mined in the U.S. in the state of Wyoming in stratified ground at depths of 1,500 ft more or less. Collapse extended over a 1000x2000 m area that was being mined by the room and pillar method.
Contrasting geology and mineralogy of evaporative encrustations in salt-tolerant ecosystems, Maniototo basin, Central Otago, New Zealand
Published in New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 2022
Dave Craw, Cathy Rufaut, Gemma Kerr, Dhana Pillai
A notable feature of evaporative marine aerosol waters is the relatively high pH of >9 (Figure 9B; Table 2). Modelling equilibrium evaporative precipitation from the Sutton Salt Lake water in equilibrium with atmospheric CO2 yields pH initially near 7, followed by a progressive decrease (Figure 9B). However, if the major carbonate minerals are suppressed as in the model in Figure 9A, the initial pH is near to 9 as observed (Table 2), although this model pH also decreases with progressive evaporation (Figure 10B). Higher pH results from models in equilibrium with lower CO2 concentrations, although these decrease with on-going evaporation as well (Figure 10B). An alternative explanation for high pH in partially evaporated waters is preferential dissolution of Na-carbonate minerals (Figure 4E; 9A,B). Modelling suggests that this effect is slight when involving nahcolite, but substantial when involving trona or natron (Figure 9A,B).
The effect of mineral composition on direct aqueous carbonation of ultramafic mine waste rock for CO2 sequestration, a case study of Turnagain ultramafic complex in British Columbia, Canada
Published in International Journal of Mining, Reclamation and Environment, 2022
Jiajie Li, Anthony D. Jacobs, Michael Hitch
The mineralogy of the product tested samples were quantified using XRD with Rietveld refinement [56]. Like the reactant material, serpentine was considered as an amorphous phase and its contribution to the pattern was back-calculated from the measured degree of crystallinity [55]. The normalised weight percentage considers all the mineral phases created from the solid components of the buffered solution in the slurry. Where present, the halite (NaCl), northupite (Na3Mg(CO3)2Cl), and trona (Na3H(CO3)2 · 2H2O) mineral abundances were removed and the remaining weight percentages renormalised. Halite was present in all product samples ranging from 1.6 wt.% (S6) to 4.1 wt.% (S11). Total solid product derived from the buffered solution ranged from 1.8 wt.% (S1) to 7.2 wt.% (S12), with a mean product content of 3.7 wt.%.
Role of fly ash in control of alkali induced swelling in kaolinitic soils: a micro-level investigation
Published in International Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 2018
Sai Kumar Vindula, Rama Vara Prasad Chavali, Hari Prasad Reddy P.
Figure 2 shows the XRD analysis of red earth. Red earth consists primarily of quartz (Peaks at 4.25, 3.34, 1.82 and 1.37 Å) along with small quantities of kaolinite (Peaks at 7.14, 4.45 and 2.56 Å) as their major minerals. Peaks pertaining to haematite (2.51 Å), an iron oxide mineral was also observed. Interaction of red earth with 4N NaOH showed three new peaks pertaining to sodalite (6.34, 3.66 and 2.59 Å), which is a sodium aluminium silicate hydroxide hydrate, and trona (Peaks at 3.19 and 2.64 Å), which is a sodium hydrogen carbonate hydrate. Sodalite which belongs to zeolite mineral group is formed due to precipitation of dissolved silica and alumina combined with sodium hydroxide. Trona formed over time as a result of carbonation of alkali solution. During the crystallisation of these two minerals, volume increases which leads to swelling.