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The application of modern principles of double ventilated roofs using stone as the main roofer in the renovation of the medieval buildings
Published in Paul Fazio, Hua Ge, Jiwu Rao, Guylaine Desmarais, Research in Building Physics and Building Engineering, 2020
Jelena Ivanovic Šekularac, Nenad Šekularac
On Holy Mount, in Hilandar, many buildings within the monastery complex have a slate roof covering: ovemight-stay houses, towers (pirgs), paraklises (churches). All the overnight-stay houses were covered with slate, naturally split, very thick and almost unprocessed. The slat roof covering has been preserved on some buildings. The slate roof covering was very much in use due to the fact that there was enough stone and it did not require a bigger production process (like lead). It is a natural material which needed some finishing touches and then it could be used on buildings. Stone was very much used for construction of buildings of that period and it was also used for the construction of foundations, walls, arches, and some types of stone were used for decorations and ornaments both in the facades and in the interiors. It was also used as a sub floor.
The essential paving properties of soil, sand and stones
Published in Maxwell Lay, John Metcalf, Kieran Sharp, Paving Our Ways, 2020
Maxwell Lay, Metcalf John, Sharp Kieran
Next, consider the larger particles. These are usually pieces of stone derived from rock strata by natural processes or by the mechanical crushing of rock. Most stones are either sedimentary (e.g. sandstone), igneous (e.g. basalt), metamorphic (e.g. hornfels) or artificial (e.g. blast furnace slag). A key term to clarify is gravel which is often used in a loosely defined and careless way. Not all stones are gravel. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary properly defines gravel as water-worn stones and this is consistent with their common source in alluvial sediments, river-beds and sea-sides. In reviewing road-making materials, Aitken commented112 that gravel is all more or less rounded and worn. In pavements, it is necessary to make a clear distinction between gravels at one extreme and the sharp-edged broken stones resulting from quarrying, rock-crushing and splitting at the other extreme. For road-making, gravels are very poor as they are easily squeezed out of position, and broken stones are very good as they are easily compacted into stable layers. Confusingly, the term “sharp gravel” has been used for normal rounded gravel that has been washed clean of dirt.113 The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary does not include this use, and Phillips may have misinterpreted what he had been told. In England, stones suitable for pavements are called roadstone. Flaky, elongated pieces of stone also perform poorly in pavements as they also are difficult to compact into a stable layer.
The geological origin of building stones
Published in John A. Hudson†, John W. Cosgrove, Understanding Building Stones and Stone Buildings, 2019
John A. Hudson†, John W. Cosgrove
We note that the Oxford English Dictionary defines stone as “Hard, solid, non-metallic, mineral matter of which rock is made, especially as a building material.” Etymologically, the word ‘stone’ derives from the Old English ‘stān’ (noun) which is of Germanic origin and related to the Dutch ‘steen’ and German ‘stein’. Stones are individual pieces of rock, generally the result of the inexorable breakdown of rocks exposed at the Earth’s surface by the processes of weathering and erosion, i.e., they are pieces of rock detached from their parent rock mass. These ‘pieces’ occur on a large range of scales in nature from minute grains to blocks kilometres in size. Some of these naturally occurring stones can be used ‘as is’ for building stones. However and more commonly, building stones are quarried, i.e., detached from the in situ rock mass, often by exploiting natural fractures, and then ‘dressed’ (the shaping and surfacing of blocks of stone) as required for the construction of buildings. The relation between the rock mass type and the mode of quarrying is discussed in Chapter 4 after introduction to the specific types of building stone in Chapter 3.
Determination of number, energy and dose albedos of some marbles used in external wall cladding of buildings for 59.54 keV gamma-rays
Published in Radiation Effects and Defects in Solids, 2019
Natural stones as marble, sandstone or granite are rocks formed by various natural processes during almost all the Earth's history. Marble is a metamorphic rock containing CaCO3, dolomite, rarely hematite and graphite and formed from calcareous remnants of organisms in high temperatures. Different colored marbles are available according to protolith concentration of the marble concentration such as white, cream, green, pink and maroon marbles (1–3). The marbles are analyzed in terms of some physical or mechanical properties in order to use it in different areas of life. The qualitative and quantitative analysis and physical properties of marbles can be investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), radio isotopic analysis, instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA), ICP-MS analyses (inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry), plasma spectrometry and atomic absorption spectrophotometry (4). The materials used in external wall cladding of buildings as concrete and marble should be well absorber, durability and low cost when the gamma-ray shielding ability must be taken into consideration.
Damage detection historical building using mapping method in music school of the University of Guanajuato, Mexico
Published in Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Structures, 2021
María Jesús Puy-Alquiza, Velia Yolanda Ordaz Zubia, Raúl Miranda Aviles, Ma. Del Carmen Salazar-Hernández
Most of the stone used in the decoration of the building of the school music of the University of Guanajuato have been recognized through macroscopic and microscopic observation. The samples were selected considering the widespread occurrence. Three stone for petrographical studies were taken of the walls and façade of the musical school of the University of Guanajuato. Initial in situ studies on the weathering damage on the musical school comprised survey, classification and registration of weathering form and digital image processing. Stone properties such as petrography and mineralogy composition, real and apparent density, absorption, water absorption coefficient, total porosity, uniaxial compressive strength, and salt resistance test, were studied.
Quantifying the non-normality of shear strength of geomaterials
Published in European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering, 2020
The scatter plots of data sets of rock (denoted by the letter ‘R’ to identify the material type in Table 1) shear strengths comprising 182 pairs at seven sites (Gay & Schad, 2001; Goodman & Algren, 2000; Lanaro & Fredriksson, 2005; Lindquist, 1994; Nunoo, 2009; Wang & Dong, 2010; Young, 1986) are shown in Figure 4. The shear test of these rocks is mostly performed by a triaxial test, except for the direct shear test investigated by Lanaro and Fredriksson (2005) and Nunoo (2009). They include diverse rock types such as granitic rocks, soft rocks, rockfills, clay stones and sedimentary formations.