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Green Transportation
Published in Eric A. Woodroof, Green Facilities Handbook, 2020
Battery-powered electric vehicles are designated as zero emission vehicles (ZEVs) because they have no tail pipe emissions. However, there are upstream emissions associated with the electricity. Thus the grid make up of the state that you are in is going to depict the CO2 and the renewable content of the electricity. The electric grid today has almost no oil in the mix. Battery electric or plug-in hybrids can use the grid today. The diversified portfolio of the grid makes this choice very appealing, with the onset of new smart home electric meters that bill you at varying rates though the day. If you charge your vehicle at night when rates and usage are low this can be a win-win. Here are a few key points regarding EVs. If you have renewable electricity at your site, let’s say from Photovoltaic (PV). The owner of said property has overspecked a system or has done energy efficiencies to the home after the system was installed. A second or third vehicle that is an EV can utilize the renewable electricity. This off the shelf system starts to get to the sustainable transportation transition. The efficiencies of EVs with motors being more than 90% efficient and batteries at 75-85% operating costs can be reduced. The inherent nature of an EV drive train with so few moving parts can lower service costs. Without the engine oil or coolant the fluids that can contaminate soil and water (multimedia impacts) are limited. The main two categories of EVs are full function; these can travel at freeway speeds and can take the place of a regular vehicle. The other is a neighborhood electric vehicle (NEV) and this vehicle is limited to 25MPH. There is a third type that is called a city car but at this time no manufacture is making one. Also there is no official vehicle code for a city car.
Battery EVs and PHEVs
Published in Kwang Hee Nam, and Electric Vehicle Applications, 2017
Zero emission vehicles (ZEV) are inevitable for car manufacturers to satisfy the ACEA 2020 commission target level of 95gCO2/km. Battery electric vehicles (BEV) and hydrogen vehicles are regarded as feasible ZEV solutions. But hydrogen vehicles require infrastructures for creating, distributing, and storing hydrogen, which is costly. Thus, most players conclude that hydrogen power-trains will not be available in a foreseeable future, i.e., before 2020 [15].
Regulation and Public Policy
Published in Wayne T. Davis, Joshua S. Fu, Thad Godish, Air Quality, 2021
Wayne T. Davis, Joshua S. Fu, Thad Godish
Emission standards for exhaust gases were first required on 1966 model, light-duty vehicles sold in California and in 1968 models nationwide. Emission standards were applied only to NMHCs and CO, as these were more easily controlled than NOx. Table 8.7 illustrates the values of and the dates on which the first California and national standards were established. California established standards for NOx (1971), PM (1984), and formaldehyde (HCHO, 1994). The U.S. EPA Tier 1 standards, set in 1991 after passage of the 1990 CAA Amendments, tightened the standards for light-duty vehicles including LDV (passenger cars) and LDT (trucks) with separate standards for each vehicle type for NOx, NMHCs, and CO. NMHCs were subsequently redefined as nonmethane organic gases. California also adopted it is very ambitious low-emission vehicle (LEV) Program in 1990 which tightened emissions standards for light- and medium-duty vehicles. The LEV program (now referred to as LEV I) established tiers of emission standards for increasingly more stringent categories of LEVs; a mechanism requiring each manufacturer to phase-in progressively cleaner vehicles each year with an option of banking and trading emissions; and a requirement that a certain percentage of vehicles be zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs). The program had a series of five progressively more stringent vehicle categories and associated standards, including TLEV (transitional LEV), LEV, ULEV (ultra-low), SULEV (super-ultra-low), and ZEV. The latter category is primarily electric vehicles and hydrogen-fueled vehicles. While the ZEV has no emissions, it does derive its energy from other energy sources that are necessary to produce stored electrical energy and/or hydrogen. In 1998, California introduced an additional category, the partial zero-emission vehicle (PZEV) which was used to describe a vehicle with zero evaporative emissions from its fuel system, at least a 15-year (or 150,000 mi.) warranty on emission components and meets the SULEV emission standards.
Electric Vehicle Advancements, Barriers, and Potential: A Comprehensive Review
Published in Electric Power Components and Systems, 2023
Alperen Mustafa Çolak, Erdal Irmak
There are four main types of EVs such as battery electric vehicles (BEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) [1–3]. BEVs are powered solely by electricity from an onboard battery, making them a zero-emission vehicle with no tailpipe emissions. HEVs use a combination of electricity and gasoline or diesel, making them a more efficient option for drivers who need longer driving ranges. PHEVs have a larger battery than HEVs and can be charged from an external source, allowing drivers to rely more on electricity than gasoline. This means they have the potential to emit less greenhouse gases and air pollutants compared to conventional gasoline vehicles. Lastly, FCEVs use hydrogen fuel cells to produce electricity, emitting only water vapor and warm air, making them a truly zero-emission vehicle. Each type of EV has its advantages and limitations. BEVs have a limited driving range, which may not be suitable for all drivers. However, they offer lower maintenance costs and operate quietly. HEVs are more efficient and have a longer driving range than BEVs, making them a better option for drivers who need longer distances. PHEVs have a longer driving range than BEVs and can be recharged at home or at public charging stations. FCEVs have a similar driving range to gasoline vehicles and refuel quickly, but the availability of hydrogen refueling stations is currently limited [4–6].
Transforming road freight transportation from fossils to hydrogen: Opportunities and challenges
Published in International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 2023
Sandun Wanniarachchi, Kasun Hewage, Chan Wirasinghe, Gyan Chhipi-Shrestha, Hirushie Karunathilake, Rehan Sadiq
Currently, alternative fuels such as electricity, hydrogen, advanced biofuels, and renewable synthetic fuels are used to power zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) or low-emission vehicle (Salvi et al., 2013; Demirbas, 2006; Anstrom, 2014). Battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs) are the most commonly used, commercially available ZEV technologies at present (Thomas, 2009). However, the shift from conventional fossil fuels to alternative low-emission energy sources has been hampered by a number of challenges including limitations in available technology, personal preferences, expensive vehicle prices, lack of recharging infrastructure, prolonged recharging times, and range limitations (Thomas, 2009).
Benefits of near-zero freight: The air quality and health impacts of low-NOx compressed natural gas trucks
Published in Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 2021
Michael Mac Kinnon, Shupeng Zhu, Alejandra Cervantes, Donald Dabdub, G.S. Samuelsen
MDV and HDV are highly diverse. Thus, and a range of alternative vehicles are being considered, including the use of electricity within battery electric trucks and hydrogen within fuel cell powered vehicles, both of which achieve zero tail pipe emissions (here within referred to as zero emission vehicles (ZEV)). However, the technical feasibility and currently high costs associated with these options raise questions regarding the near-term suitability of hydrogen and electricity to achieve significant reductions in emissions from the trucking sector (Couch et al. 2019). Additionally, an alternative technology being considered for both applications is the low-NOx compressed natural gas (CNG) engine, which achieves significant reductions in NOx and moderate reductions in other pollutants including PM (Quiros et al. 2016). Low-NOx CNG stoichiometric spark ignition engines significantly reduce NOx emissions by utilizing a systems approach combining advanced three-way catalysts with engine management strategies (California Air Resources Board 2015). These engines have been demonstrated to operate with NOx emissions below the CARB optional low NOx standard (0.02 g/bhp-hr) and averaged between 0.0012 and 0.02 g/bhp-hr, well below baseline diesel engines (Johnson 2018). Various engine manufacturers, including Cummins Westport and Roush Clean, have developed CNG engines ranging from 6.7 to 12 liter (L) that are commercially available and have been certified to one of the optional reduced NOx standards for on-road heavy-duty engines adopted by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) (California Air Resources Board 2017a). Therefore, low-NOx CNG engines represent a technology that can be deployed near-term to mitigate the pollutant emissions and AQ impacts of MDV and HDV.