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Batteries
Published in David Wyatt, Mike Tooley, Aircraft Electrical and Electronic Systems, 2018
Nickel-cadmium battery technology became commercially available for aircraft applications in the 1950s. At that time the major sources of batteries for aircraft were either vented lead-acid or silver-zinc technology. The nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) battery (pronounced ‘nye-cad’) eventually became the preferred battery type for larger aircraft since it can withstand higher charge/discharge rates and has a longer life. Ni-Cd cells are able to maintain a relatively steady voltage during high discharge conditions. The disadvantages of nickel-cadmium batteries are that they are more expensive (than lead-acid batteries) and have a lower voltage output per cell (hence their physical volume is larger than a lead-acid battery).
Station Battery
Published in Shoaib Khan, Industrial Power Systems, 2018
For industrial use, lead–acid batteries currently occupy over 90% of the market, although developments for other uses of more sophisticated battery chemical configurations may change this in future. Lead–acid batteries have a long life so long as the configuration of the cells and cell electrodes (plates) is correctly designed for the duty cycle. However, their performance at high and low temperature is compromised, and special precautions need to be taken outside the range 0–40°C. Although nickel–cadmium batteries are more costly, difficult to dispose of, and hence costly to recycle, they have application where extreme temperatures in the range −30°C to +50°C exist.
Power sources and power supplies
Published in Stephen Sangwine, Electronic Components and Technology, 2018
Nickel–cadmium batteries are based on cadmium and nickel oxide electrodes with a potassium hydroxide electrolyte. The open-circuit voltage is about 1.2 V. Nickel–cadmium batteries are more expensive than lead–acid batteries and are the most important alkaline secondary type. Unlike lead–acid cells, they can work well at temperatures down to less than −30°C. They have a flat discharge characteristic and can accept continuous overcharging at a low charge current. (This is known as “trickle” charging.)
Clarke concentrations of heavy metals in surface waters of the transboundary river Yertis (Kazakhstan)
Published in Water Science, 2023
Aizhan Ryskeldieva, Diana Burlibaeva, Almat Yerdesbay, Gulsara Kamelkhan, Nurbanu Sarova
More significant cadmium concentrations can be found in the time section (2010–2014) at the points (Ust-Kamenogorsk city and Predgornoe village). Figures 7–8 show the change of cadmium concentration over time. A gradual increase of cadmium concentration is observed (from Cc = 0.7 up to Cc = 3.8) between 2010 and 2013 at the Ust-Kamenogorsk point. The maximum value of the clarke concentration (Cc = 3.8) occurred in 2013. The cadmium content is not significant in 2014–2015. Consequently, after 2013, the site (Ust-Kamenogorsk city) shows a decline in cadmium concentration in the surface waters of the Yertis river (Cc = 0.005). At the observation point (Predgornoe village), no downward or upward trend is observed (Figure 8). The clarke concentration is distributed chaotically. High concentrations of clarkes were recorded in 2010 (Cc = 3.75) and 2013 (Cc = 4.415). Further, in 2014–2015 cadmium content was minimal (within Cc = 0.01–0.005) as at the point (Ust-Kamenogorsk city). A decline was observed. According to data from the National report (2019) of the Ministry of Ecology, Geology, and Natural Resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan, cadmium was not found in the surface waters of the Yertis river in 2019. Cadmium belongs to rare, dispersed elements: it is contained as an isomorphic mixture in many minerals and always in zinc minerals. Its main applications are in the manufacture of nickel-cadmium batteries, where cadmium salts are used. Cadmium is a by-product of zinc and is released into surface waters by this metal.
Heavy metals in municipal waste: the content and leaching ability by waste fraction
Published in Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 2019
Due to its high technical performance, cadmium is widely used in accumulators and accounts for about 75% of all cadmium found in household waste [2]. Accumulators are used in various devices: electric toothbrushes and razors, electrical tools, medical devices, mobile phones. Nickel-cadmium batteries contain cadmium or cadmium hydroxide as anode material. There are many products coated with cadmium to provide a gloss or for corrosion resistance: radio and television equipment, household appliances and metal products. One of the main sources of cadmium is waste fertilizer [25]. According to Alloway [7], cadmium concentration in phosphate fertilizers is above 100 mg kg−1. Cadmium is also widely used in packaging (except for food). Cadmium sulfides and cadmium sulfoselenides are used as dyes (orange-yellow, pink-red, and chestnut colors) in plastics, ceramics, and paints. PVC plastic stabilizers include cadmium stearates (except PVC-based plastic for food packaging to prevent contamination). Cadmium semiconductor compounds are used in solar cells [22, 26], and various electrical and electronic devices (average cadmium concentration 180 mg kg−1) [18]. Cadmium is also included in some cosmetics, e.g. creams. While many cadmium compounds are insoluble in water, some are soluble in acids and organic compounds, thus still presenting a risk of environmental contamination.
Energy management system for surveillance and performance analysis of a micro-grid based on discrete event systems
Published in International Journal of Green Energy, 2021
Karim Fellah, Rosa Abbou, Mounir Khiat
The real-time digital simulation verifies the reliability, feasibility, and efficiency of the control system by using the RT-LAB platform consisting of testing the response of energy storage batteries during and after a fault occurrence. Also, comparison of ESS effectiveness during such critical situation between three types of batteries Figure 11which are connected to the micro-grid is conducted through the following cases: Case 1: Only lead–acid batteries are connected to the micro-grid; Case 2: Only lithium-ion batteries are connected to the micro-grid.Case 3: Only nickel-cadmium batteries are connected to the micro-grid.The simulation results are presented in the following figures on Figure 12 for each case:(a)- Lead–acid batteries response after a fault.(b)- Supplied active power from the main utility grid, while only lead–acid batteries are connected.(c)- Lithium–ion battery response after a fault.(d)- Supplied active power from the main utility grid while lithium–ion batteries are connected.(e)- Nickel–cadmium battery response after fault.(f)- Supplied active power from the main utility grid while only nickel–cadmium batteries are connected.