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Energy Storage Technologies for Microgrids
Published in Stephen A. Roosa, Fundamentals of Microgrids, 2020
During charging cycles, lead-acid batteries generate heat which must be dissipated. To provide the best reliability, reserve batteries need to be selected for high temperature applications [17]. When rated for such conditions, the batteries have a theoretical maximum ten-year life when operated at 25°C (77°F) [17]. In practice, the lifecycle of lead-acid batteries is much less (about five years) due to widely variable ambient conditions. Typically, a lead-acid battery loses 50% of its service life for each 10°C increase in ambient temperature above its normal temperature rating [17]. While relatively inexpensive, lead-acid batteries have a low energy density, are heavy, often do not respond well to deep discharging, and since the lead (Pb) is toxic their use may be restricted in some applications or locations [16]. The Pb in these batteries contaminates the environment if disposal is not properly handled. For these reasons, lead-acid batteries are being replaced with lithium-ion batteries for many applications.
Modular Systems for Energy and Fuel Storage
Published in Yatish T. Shah, Modular Systems for Energy Usage Management, 2020
Invented in the 19th century, lead–acid batteries are the most fully developed and commercially mature type of rechargeable battery. They are widely used in both mobile applications like cars and boats and stationary consumer applications like uninterruptible power supply (UPS) units and off-grid PV. However, several issues have prevented widespread adoption for utility-scale grid applications. These include short cycle life, slow charging rates and high maintenance at power rating ≫1 MW. These perform a variety of services including peak shaving, on- site power, ancillary services, ramping, and renewables capacity firming. Lead–acid batteries rely on a positive, lead-dioxide electrode reacting with a negative, metallic lead electrode through a sulfuric acid electrolyte. Ongoing research and development have produced several proprietary technologies in two categories: advanced lead–acid and lead acid–carbon batteries [1–12].
Energy Storage
Published in Denise Wilson, Wearable Solar Cell Systems, 2019
As a point of departure for understanding how batteries are best charged, consider the lead-acid battery around which many stationary solar cell systems have been designed. Lead-acid batteries are a relatively inexpensive, robust, reliable, and mature technology. Their specific energy is lower than NiCd, NiMH, and Li-ion batteries (Table 7.2), but their low cost keeps the technology in play for utility-scale and other large-scale energy storage systems. Lead (Pb) acid battery technology itself is considered more sustainable than competing technologies in terms of resource availability, and a vast majority of lead batteries are recycled, which further improves sustainability and reduces the end-of-life impacts on environmental and ecosystem health (May, Davidson, and Monahov 2018). However, Pb batteries contain a toxic heavy metal and are significantly heavier than NiMH, NiCd, and Li-ion technologies, they are a nonstarter in most wearable PV applications. Nevertheless, the maturity and success of lead-acid in many solar cell systems provides fundamental insight into how to overcome challenges involved in charging a battery using the inconsistent and often unstable output that PV arrays often provide.
Electric Vehicle Advancements, Barriers, and Potential: A Comprehensive Review
Published in Electric Power Components and Systems, 2023
Alperen Mustafa Çolak, Erdal Irmak
Lead-acid batteries are one of the oldest types of batteries and were widely used in conventional gasoline-powered vehicles before the advent of EVs. They are also used in some low-speed EVs such as golf carts and forklifts. Lead-acid batteries consist of a series of lead plates submerged in an electrolyte solution of sulfuric acid [107,124], as presented in Figure 9. When the battery is charged, lead sulfate forms on the plates, and when discharged, the lead sulfate converts back to lead and sulfuric acid. While lead-acid batteries are inexpensive and relatively easy to manufacture, they are also bulky and heavy, which limits their use in EVs [125,126]. They are also less energy-dense than newer battery technologies, meaning they can store less energy per unit of weight or volume.
Effective control strategy based-on MPPT for stand-alone wind-driven PMSG with zero-current switching boost converter
Published in Australian Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, 2018
Generally, wind power output is fluctuating due to the wind speed variations. In the case of isolated loads, using appropriate energy storage systems to stabilise such fluctuations, and to maximise the dependability of power supply is reported (Lee and Wang 2008; Mittal, Sandhu, and Jain 2010). Lead-acid batteries (LABs) are a low-cost choice for many applications that require large storage capabilities (IRENA 2016; El-Ali et al. 2009). AC–DC converter is used to convert AC voltage with variable amplitude and frequency from the generator to DC voltage. The DC voltage is converted again to AC voltage with fixed amplitude and frequency to supply AC loads (Barote and Marinescu 2010; Blaabjerg, Liserre, and Ma 2012). Numerous power converter topologies for wind energy systems are used viz diode rectifier with a DC/DC converter and an inverter is used in isolated or small scale wind farms for its simple topology, control, and low cost (Baroudi, Dinavahi, and Knight 2005; Rolan et al. 2009; Dehghanzadeh, Behjat, and Banaei 2016; Al-Saffar and Ismail 2015; Ajami, R. Alizadeh and M. Elmi 2016).
Optimization of electric propulsion system for a hybridized vehicle
Published in Mechanics Based Design of Structures and Machines, 2019
Jony Javorski Eckert, Ludmila Corrêa de Alkmin e Silva, Eduardo dos Santos Costa, Fabio Mazzariol Santiciolli, Fernanda Cristina Corrêa, Franco Giuseppe Dedini
Lead-acid batteries were adopted due to the advantages, presented by Jung (2011) and Jung, Zhang, and Zhang (2015), that are favorable to the hybridization kit as a low-cost secondary battery, available in maintenance-free options, easy to manufacture in high-volume production, good recharge efficiency (over 70%), and good recycling. According to Pistoia (2010), over 80% of the used lead acid batteries are collected and recycled by the manufacturers. The recycling process is especially important in Brazil (market place of the analyzed vehicle), which imports almost 100% of its lead (de A. Bião Teixeira and Silva 2014).