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Soy-Based Lubricants
Published in Leslie R. Rudnick, Synthetics, Mineral Oils, and Bio-Based Lubricants, 2020
Plant oils and animal fats can be hydrolyzed to fatty acids using a Kolbe reaction. By electrochemically decarboxylating C4–C28 fatty acids, C6–C54 hydrocarbons can be synthesized. The C6–C54 undergo olefin metathesis and/or hydroisomerization reaction process to synthesize heavy fuel oil, diesel fuel, kerosene fuel, lubricant base oil, and linear alpha olefin products [23]. The electrolysis process simultaneously removes oxygen from free fatty acids and dimerizes the radicals to form longer hydrocarbon chains. Four major steps are involved: (i) hydrolysis of plant-based oils or animal fats to produce free fatty acids; (ii) electrolysis of the fatty acids to build long-chain hydrocarbons; (iii) hydrofinishing, producing isomerization of long-chain hydrocarbons to yield large, saturated, branched hydrocarbons; and (iv) separation of products from a hydrocarbon mixture. Soybean oil shows promise as a high-performance base oil, providing a lower-cost, higher viscosity index alternative to synthetic base oils [24].
Energy Demand and Supply
Published in Efstathios E. Michaelides, Energy, the Environment, and Sustainability, 2018
Approximately one-third of the total primary energy produced in the world is used for transportation [1], and most of this energy is derived from petroleum. Land vehicle engines and aircraft engines predominantly use fuels composed of liquid hydrocarbon mixtures—gasoline, diesel, kerosene—all products of petroleum distillation. Although petroleum products have been used for other activities in the past—e.g., for industrial and residential heating, for the production of chemicals, and for electricity production—regional and global transportations consume an increasingly higher fraction of petroleum [1,4]. The increased number and increased usages of land vehicles, ships, and aircraft have caused a significant increase in the global petroleum consumption. Figure 2.12, which covers the same time period as Figure 2.11, shows the corresponding increasing demand for petroleum products in the United States [13]. A couple of significant trends may be observed in this figure: The use of petroleum products has significantly increased in the transportation sector, while it has remained the same or declined in the other economic sectors. As a result, the fraction of petroleum products consumed by the transportation sector gradually rose from approximately 50% in 1960 to more than 71% in 2015. The growth in the demand for petroleum has occurred despite the significant price increase of petroleum relative to other fuels since 1973 and despite several national efforts to curb the petroleum demand and develop alternative transportation fuels.
Feedstock Composition
Published in James G. Speight, Refinery Feedstocks, 2020
The fractionation methods available to the crude oil industry allow a reasonably effective degree of separation of hydrocarbon mixtures (Speight, 2014, 2015). However, the problems are separating the crude oil constituents without alteration of their molecular structure and obtaining these constituents in a substantially pure state. Thus, the general procedure is to employ techniques that segregate the constituents according to molecular size and molecular type.
Radial basis function (RBF) network for modeling gasoline properties
Published in Petroleum Science and Technology, 2019
Afshin Tatar, Ali Barati, Adel Najafi, Amir H. Mohammadi
Gasoline (or petrol) as a volatile and combustible hydrocarbon mixture is produced typically from crude oil. It has many applications in the industry (Mendes, Aleme, and Barbeira 2012). Also, it is utilized as a fuel and source of energy for transportation. Furthermore, in refineries, near half of the crude oil is converted to gasoline (Murty and Rao 2004). It must be noted that determination of the physical properties of substances, specially petroleum products is not a simple task because some substances like petroleum and its products have many compositions which in most cases are unknown (Litani-Barzilai et al. 1997). Gasoline compositions normally consist of several hydrocarbon groups, iso- paraffins, viz. aromatics, normal paraffins, and naphtenics and olefins (de Oliveira et al. 2004; Teixeira et al. 2007). The performance of gasoline and also its value as a fuel are functions of its properties like Motor Octane Number (MON), Specific Gravity (SG), Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP), and Research Octane Number (RON) (Albahri 2014).
The pressure dependence of laminar flame speed of 2-methyl-2-butene/air flames in the 0.1–1.0 MPa range
Published in Combustion Science and Technology, 2018
Bei-Jing Zhong, Zhao-Mei Zeng, Hui-Sheng Peng
Gasoline is a complex hydrocarbon mixture which mainly consists of alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, and aromatics. Alkenes are significant components of gasoline accounting about 20% in the 93# gasoline in China, and they are also important intermediate products during the combustion of alkanes. Previous studies (Colket et al., 2007; Pera and Knop, 2012) found that the primary alkene components of gasoline are numerous isomers in the C5–C6 range, and among them, 2-methyl-2-butene accounts for the largest proportion (1.7 mol% of gasoline and 30 mol% for alkenes of gasoline), followed by cyclopentene (0.9 mol% of gasoline and 16 mol% for alkenes of gasoline). Moreover, alkenes contribute to determining the ignition characteristics of gasoline, including high-octane number which is related to good anti-knock performance. In particular, 2-methyl-2-butene shows strong octane sensitivity which is close to that of octane.