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Stability of Airborne Microbes and Allergens
Published in Christopher S. Cox, Christopher M. Wathes, Bioaerosols Handbook, 2020
Relatively high resistance of foot-and-mouth disease and of swine vesicular disease viruses may be related to being lipid-free, and an otherwise involvement of lipid-hydroperoxides known to be extremely reactive in Maillard reactions.
Human and livestock pathogens and their control during composting
Published in Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2022
Cell membranes, viral envelopes and capsids are permeable to ammonia, resulting in an inactivating effect above a certain ammonia concentration (Himathongkham & Riemann, 1999). However, the susceptibility of viruses to inactivation by ammonia depends on the nature of the nucleic acid (Figure 4), with RNA more prone to hydrolytic cleavage than DNA (Decrey et al., 2015). Single-stranded RNA viruses (Groups IV and V viruses) such as hepatitis E virus are inactivated by ammonia (Emmoth, 2015; Jones & Martin, 2003; Kasorndorkbua et al., 2005). Inactivation of bovine enterovirus and swine vesicular disease virus occurs in aerated pig slurry when ammonia is added at temperatures where these viruses would otherwise not be inactivated (Turner et al., 1998). Inactivation of Group IV viruses (ss-RNA) is attributed to capsid protein denaturation and RNA cleavage (Guardabassi et al., 2003). Ammonia can also increase the pH inside the virus, leading to alkaline hydrolysis followed by RNA degradation (Emmoth, 2015). The alkaline hydrolysis reaction is irreversible. Alkaline transesterification of RNA is responsible for the inactivation of the single-stranded RNA bacteriophage MS2 and other naked RNA viruses (Decrey et al., 2015). RNA viruses exhibit different inactivation rates according to the conformation of their RNA structure (Decrey et al., 2015), which makes transesterification more or less likely. Viruses with longer genomes are more susceptible to transesterification and prone to quicker inactivation. The slower inactivation rate of the double-stranded RNA viruses of the Group III (such as rotavirus) may be due to less opportunity for transesterification, because of the double helix configuration and the need for two scissions (Burge et al., 1983; Vinnerås et al., 2008). Nonetheless, Group III viruses have been inactivated within 12 hr after addition of 294 mM of ammonia, but not in urine (Höglund et al., 2002). Urea may therefore not be as effective as ammonia for pathogen inactivation. This was confirmed by slower bacterial inactivation in manure with urea compared to the equivalent amount of ammonia (Ottoson et al., 2008).