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Introduction to Cancer, Conventional Therapies, and Bionano-Based Advanced Anticancer Strategies
Published in D. Sakthi Kumar, Aswathy Ravindran Girija, Bionanotechnology in Cancer, 2023
It is a self-digestion process, which is also another source of cell death. It is the process where it removes and degrades the damaged cellular constituents by which a small portion of cellular components are isolated from the rest of the cell to form a double layered vesicle called autophagosome. Autophagosome further fuses with lysosome having low pH (acidic) and later endosome to form autolysosome. When autophagy and lysosome degradation is disturbed, Cathespin B is released from lysosome to trigger mitochondrial permeabalization and caspase activation. Cathespin D is translocated from lysosome to cytosol, which is responsible for Bax activation and apoptotic induced factor release. In addition, caspase cleave autophagy relative proteins, such as Beclin1, Bcl-2, P53, and UV-irradiation resistance gene (UVRAG), are several tumor proteins that regulate autophagy.
Emerging Antiviral Technology
Published in Peerawatt Nunthavarawong, Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa, Suchart Siengchin, Mathew Thoppil-Mathew, Antimicrobial and Antiviral Materials, 2022
Vinaya Tari, Karthik Kannan, Vinita Vishwakarma
Hydrophilic therapeutic agents capable of being introduced inside the aqueous core. The liposome is the first commercialized nanostructure introduced in 1965, and it is mainly used as a drug delivery system. Liposome consists of at least one lipid bilayer (natural of synthetic phospholipids), and inside is an aqueous core [9]. There are many types of liposomes, viz. multilamellar vesicles, unilamellar vesicles, large unilamellar vesicles, etc. Usually, liposomes vary from 40 nm to 10 pm as per their synthesis. However, lipophilic agents are formed in the lipid bilayer, and their efficiency depends on hydrophobicity and membrane fluidity. The spleen phagocytic cells recognize liposomes rapidly after introduction in the body. However, the engulfment of liposomes by the phagocytic cells can be reduced with the help of polyethylene glycol (PEG) through chemical modification of liposomes [5-6]. There are some disadvantages of liposome nanostructure, viz. poor stability in vivo and in vitro, high production cost, and low efficacy of therapeutics in the lipid bilayer and aqueous core [5, 9], The cellular translocation enhancement through the transactivator of transcription of HIV, i.e., TAT peptide, was achieved by introducing it into the liposome [10, 32].
Toxic Responses of the Nervous System
Published in Stephen K. Hall, Joana Chakraborty, Randall J. Ruch, Chemical Exposure and Toxic Responses, 2020
Impulses are conducted from one neuron to another across a junction referred to as the synapse. At the synapse, the axonal terminals of presynaptic neurons terminate in bulb-like structures referred to as synaptic end bulbs. These end bulbs commonly synapse with the dendrites or cell bodies of one or several postsynaptic neurons. Whether an impulse is conducted across a synapse depends on the presence of chemical messengers which are collectively referred to as neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters are synthesized by the neuron, transported to the synaptic end bulbs, and stored in small membrane bound sacs called synaptic vesicles. Upon stimulation of the end bulbs, neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synaptic cleft where they subsequently interact with receptors located on the postsynaptic plasma membrane. This interaction may result in initiation or inhibition of impulse conduction in the opposing neuron. The specific outcome depends on the chemical nature of the neurotransmitter and its interaction with the receptors of the postsynaptic neuron. In either case, impulse conduction occurs in only one direction, from the presynaptic neuron to the opposing postsynaptic neuron.
Epidemiology, virology and clinical aspects of hantavirus infections: an overview
Published in International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 2022
Sima Singh, Arshid Numan, Dinesh Sharma, Rahul Shukla, Amit Alexander, Gaurav Kumar Jain, Farhan Jalees Ahmad, Prashant Kesharwani
Following attachment to a cell surface receptor, the Hantavirus virus is incorporated into the host population. After binding, cell entry is mediated through clathrin-coated pits, and virons are eventually delivered to lysosomes. Virions are uncoated inside the endolysosomal compartment, and three viral capsids are released into the cytoplasm (Jin et al. 2002). This causes the virus to be taken up by a clathrin-coated vesicle (CCV), which is made up of clathrin-coated cellular membrane (Ramanathan and Jonsson 2008). RdRp initiates transcription and produces three mRNAs, one from each S, M, and L section of the viral RNA. The S and L derived mRNAs are translated on free ribosomes. Although M-specific mRNAs are translated on the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Intrinsically, the glycoprotein precursor is cleaved at a closely conserved amino acid motif, yielding two glycoproteins, Gn and Gc (Spiropoulou 2000). The glycoproteins Gn and Gc are transferred to the Golgi complex for glycosylation. Following glycosylation in the ER, Gn and Gc transfer to the Golgi complex. Hanta virions are assumed to form in the Golgi complex. It is accompanied by budding into the Golgi cisternae, migration to the plasma membrane of secretory vesicles, and exocytosis. However, the specifics of virion egress mostly remain unknown (Szabó 2017).
Physiological and pathophysiological implications of hydrogen sulfide: a persuasion to change the fate of the dangerous molecule
Published in Journal of the Chinese Advanced Materials Society, 2018
Jan Mohammad Mir, Ram Charitra Maurya
Signaling molecules are among special class of compounds that are responsible for transmitting information between cells in a body. The size, shape, and function of different types of signaling molecules can vary greatly. Some carry signals over short distances, while others transmit information over very long distances. Signaling molecules may be in all sizes and chemical dispositions, ranging from relatively large proteins to gaseous molecules.[40] Based on the variations in their properties, signaling molecules are broadly classified as neurotransmitter and gasotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are compounds produced by neurons and stored in vesicles until stimulation of the neurons trigger their release (Figure 4, top). Specific membrane receptor in a neighboring cell is encountered by the signaling molecules to produce a physiological effect. A number of features are being shared by amine, amino acid, and peptide neurotransmitters and are stored in synaptic vesicles, so that desirable proportion of the stores is released, leaving a reserve pool for safety purpose. The release is the consequence of exocytosis, in which the vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane to expel its contents. Inactivation of the phenomeneon occurs by re-uptake of neurotransmitters into the releasing nerve terminal or adjacent glia by enzymatic degradation or by simple diffusion away from the synapse.
Effect of temperature on the organized self-assembly of SDS/β-Cyclodextrin aqueous solution by dielectric relaxation behavior
Published in Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, 2018
Zhou Yawen, Wang Shan, Lv Mengdie, Xu Baocai, Han Fu, Zhao Li
Dielectric relaxation spectroscopy (DRS) is a new method to investigate the dynamic properties and structures of surfactant solution.[13141516171819] Because of the advantages of DRS, which is effective, convenient, and non-invasive, more and more researchers have paid attention to its application. Redwood obtained that phosphatidylcholine vesicles exhibit relaxation at 40 MHz.[20] In addition, Barchini theoretically and experimentally investigated the electro-dynamic properties of liposome.[21] However, most of vesicles research concerns liposome and phosphatidylcholine vesicle, and reports about other vesicle systems are lacking. Vesicles are widely used in fundamental research and practical applications in many fields, especially as drug carriers in the field of medicine.