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Chemical Composition of Biomass
Published in Jean-Luc Wertz, Philippe Mengal, Serge Perez, Biomass in the Bioeconomy, 2023
Jean-Luc Wertz, Philippe Mengal, Serge Perez
Their principal structural elements are polypeptide chains, although they may be combined with fats as lipoproteins and with polysaccharides as glycoproteins. Proteins have complex structures based on their amino acid composition (primary structure), three-dimensional substructures including helices and beta sheets (secondary structure), the way subunits are linked together to form a polypeptide chain (tertiary structure), and how the different polypeptide chains may be packed together to form the overall structure of the protein (quaternary structure). Molecular weights vary from thousands to millions Dalton. The molecules may consist of one single chain, or two or more chains joined together. Globular proteins consist of chains tightly intertwined to form a nearly spherical shape. In some more complex proteins, these spherical units may themselves be joined together by non-covalent forces into larger structures of the fairly precise form (Figure 5.16).
Vaccines, Hepatitis B and Insulin Production
Published in Debabrata Das, Soumya Pandit, Industrial Biotechnology, 2021
This is a more recent advancement in the field of vaccine production. Modern advancements bring safer, more effective and cheaper vaccines. The subunit vaccine is a type in which instead of a living microorganism or a dead microorganism, only the antigens or the epitopes which can induce the antigen production are used. Sub-unit vaccines are also known as surface molecule vaccines, because the materials that induce antibody production are located at the surface of the microorganism. The advantages in using this kind of vaccine are that they are safer and there is less antigenic competition since only a few components of the microorganism are included in the vaccine production (Ellis and Brodeur, 2012). They have a disadvantage, this being that these vaccines require strong adjuvants; the compounds that are administered along with vaccines to increase their immunogenicity are known as adjuvants. These adjuvants often induce tissue reactions. The duration of the immunity that the vaccine provides is shorter than that of live vaccines.
Production of Clean Energy from Cyanobacterial Biochemical Products
Published in Stephen A. Roosa, International Solutions to Sustainable Energy, Policies and Applications, 2020
The other hydrogen-metabolizing/producing enzymes in cyanobacteria are Hydrogenases; they occur as two distinct types in different cyanobacterial species. One type uptakes hydrogenase encoded by hupSL [38] and has the ability to oxidize hydrogen. The other type of hydrogenase is reversible or bidirectional hydrogenase (encoded by hoxFUYH) and it either absorbs or produces hydrogen. Uptake hydrogenase enzymes are found in the thylakoid membrane of cyanobacterial heterocyst, where they transfer electrons from hydrogen for the reduction of oxygen via the respiratory chain in a reaction known as oxyhydrogenation or the Knallgas reaction. The enzyme consists of two subunits. The hupL-coded protein uptakes hydrogen and the smaller hupS-coded subunit is responsible for reduction. Under ambient conditions, the hydrogen formed is reoxidized by an uptake hydrogenase via a Knallgas reaction. This is counterproductive when the goal is to produce hydrogen on a commercial scale. The reaction catalyzed by the uptake hydrogenase takes the following form: H2→Nitrogenase2H+2e−
Drying of Vaccines and Biomolecules
Published in Drying Technology, 2022
Bhaskar N. Thorat, Ayantika Sett, A. S. Mujumdar
The primary requirement for a vaccine is the antibody generation to avert disease caused by intracellular as well as extracellular microorganism. This specific property identified by such antibodies are generally limited to very less number of surface attachments present on the surface of microorganism and these surface paraphernalia could be protein molecules or carbohydrate moieties. The first step of synthesis of subunit vaccine of viral as well as bacterial subgroup is identification and isolation of those components including polysaccharides, carbohydrate/conjugate preparations, and toxoids. A subunit vaccine is commonly a surface protein which is used to activate an immune response. It is derived from a pathogen and stimulate the immunity (acquired) against that pathogen. An interesting option is to isolate the specific protein from a virus and making dosages out of it. In another method, an antigen’s gene from the targeted virus or bacterium is put into another virus. An example of this is hepatitis B vaccine. A recombinant virus from an attenuated bacterium can serve as the important component of recombinant vaccine. The antigen obtained in this fashion is expected to be patient compliant. The vaccines for both Ebola and HIV viruses can be manufactured following the above technique. There are several polysaccharide vaccines which falls under the same category, where, the signature polysaccharides are linked to the capsular vaccine. Influenza surface antigens such as neuraminidase and hemagglutinin are responsible for making of viral vaccines.
Treatment and high value utilization of glutamic acid wastewater
Published in Preparative Biochemistry & Biotechnology, 2022
Fupeng Yu, Chen Zhao, Le Su, Song Zhang, Xin Sun, Kunlun Li, Qiulin Yue, Lin Zhao
The whole genome of Bacillus licheniformis M 2020051 was sequenced. The whole-genome size was 4,311,767 bp, the GC content percentage was 45.87%, and there were 4480 coding genes, including three kinds of rRNA (5S rRNA, 16S rRNA, 23S rRNA) and 66 tRNA genes. The nhaC gene and the mrp gene were detected from whole-genome sequencing, both of which encode the Na+/H+ antiporter. Na+/H+ antiporter, also known as Na+/H+ pump, is a type of transmembrane protein responsible for ion exchange, and plays a key role in maintaining the normal salt concentration and pH steady state of cells. Among them, mrp is a common gene encoding an antiporter, which is a hetero-oligomeric complex composed of seven subunits. Each subunit is indispensable for the activity of the protein. It exists in high concentrations of Na+ and K+ under the circumstances, the mrp system is essential to maintain the bacterial ion balance and acid-base homeostasis. At the same time, the proH gene was detected, which was related to the synthesis of proline. Proline is a kind of osmotic pressure protection substance, which can relieve the pressure of high salt. This explained why Bacillus licheniformis was resistant to high salt and hypertonicity. At the same time, it was detected that the bacterium contained four genes such as capA, capB, capC, capE and glt gene cluster, which are necessary for the synthesis of polyglutamic acid. It was proved that the polyglutamic acid synthesized by this bacterium is bound to the cell wall and belongs to the binding type.[3,24]
Battling COVID-19 using machine learning: A review
Published in Cogent Engineering, 2021
Krishnaraj Chadaga, Srikanth Prabhu, Bhat K Vivekananda, S. Niranjana, Shashikiran Umakanth
ML and DL help by observing the viral protein structure that helps in the vaccine components dissemination, and also helps medical and biological researchers in reviewing large research papers at a fast pace. Vaccines are mainly available in three types: Vaccines for pathogens (e.g.: Common flu), subunit vaccines (e.g.: shingles, pertussis) that use only a small part of the virus such as a protein, and vaccines which use nucleic acid that inject a small number of viral genes, so as to make the body immune to the virus (Decario, 2020). ML is used to speed up the growth of nucleic acids and subunit vaccine types. The structure of protein composition has to be analyzed and researchers develop new