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Biocompatibility, Biodegradability, and Environmental Safety of PLA/Cellulose Composites
Published in Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai, Suchart Siengchin, Nisa V. Salim, Jinu Jacob George, Aiswarya Poulose, Polylactic Acid-Based Nanocellulose and Cellulose Composites, 2022
M. N. F. Norrrahim, N. M. Nurazzi, S. S. Shazleen, S. U. F. S. Najmuddin, T. A. T. Yasim-Anuar, J. Naveen, R. A. Ilyas
Cellulose, including nanocellulose from renewable biomass, has attracted much interest as a reinforcement in composite materials. Similar to PLA, cellulose materials are renewable in nature (i.e., could be extracted from plant cell walls such as oil palm, coconut fibers, cotton fibers, and bamboo), biodegradable, and eco-friendly [5, 6]. Cellulose and nanocellulose are not just sought out for their low cost, desirable fiber aspect ratio, biodegradability, and flexibility during processing but also for their good mechanical properties, low density as well as high specific strength and stiffness, which are useful as a reinforcing agent in composites [7, 8]. Meanwhile, nanocellulose is a referring to nano-structured cellulose. By referring to Figure 12.1, there are three types of nanocellulose which are cellulose nanocrystal (CNC), cellulose nanofibers (CNF), or bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) [9–12]. Nanocellulose can be synthesized from cellulose by using several pretreatments, which are chemical, enzymatical, biological, physical, or combination thereof [13–17]. Nanocelluose is known to have a larger specific surface area and is more versatile than cellulose.
A Review on Nanocellulose Composites in Biomedical Application
Published in S. M. Sapuan, Y. Nukman, N. A. Abu Osman, R. A. Ilyas, Composites in Biomedical Applications, 2020
N. S. Sharip, T. A. T. Yasim-Anuar, M. N. F. Norrrahim, S. S. Shazleen, N. Mohd. Nurazzi, S. M. Sapuan, R. A. Ilyas
The exploration of nanocellulose for biomedical applications is gaining attention mainly due to its favorable properties particularly its biocompatibility and low toxicology toward living cells. A search was done on lens.org using the keyword “nanocellulose biocompatibility” and it was found that the number of manuscripts focusing on the biocompatibility of nanocellulose has been increasing for years, as shown in Figure 8.2. Nevertheless, a similar search using another keyword “nanocellulose toxicology” showed an inconsistent trend of toxicology studies on nanocellulose, especially after 2015, as shown in Figure 8.3. This is worrisome as the toxicology properties of a material are one of the important factors that need to be considered for the development of safe biomedical applications.
Nanocellulose From Banana Pseudostem: Its Characterization and Application
Published in Ali Pourhashemi, Sankar Chandra Deka, A. K. Haghi, Research Methods and Applications in Chemical and Biological Engineering, 2019
M. Ghosh, Y. A. Begum, S. Muchahary, Sankar Chandra Deka
Nanocellulose is referred to as nanostructure cellulosic materials. There has been an increase in the interest in nonmaterial from renewable origins. Nanocellulose can be extracted from the plant by enzymatic, chemical, or physical strategies. Cellulose consists of nanofibrilated cellulose and cellulose nanocrystals. These nanometer-sized single fibers of cellulose are commonly referred to as nanocrystals, whiskers, nanowhiskers, microfibrillated cellulose, microfibril aggregates, or nanofibers.2,5,10,24 Cellulose nanocrystal is isolated from cellulose fiber after the complete dissolution of the amorphous region by chemical hydrolysis.22 The size and properties of nanowhiskers depend on the source and hydrolysis conditions of cellulose fibers.3,4,8 Cellulose nanocrystal is a rigid rod-like structure with widths of a few nanometers and lengths between 100 and 250 nm (from the plant) and 100 nm to several micrometer (from algae and bacteria).13 Cellulose nanocrystall have high strength, rigidity, and higher modulus—138–150 GPa.19 It can be isolated from various sources such as wheat straw and orange peel, and used as reinforcements in polymer matrices.1,9,11,12 Cellulose nanocrystal can be incorporated into a polymeric matrix that results in outstanding properties and has numerous advantages using cellulose nanocrystal as a reinforcement in nanocomposite.
Eco-friendly nanocellulose and its biomedical applications: current status and future prospect
Published in Journal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Edition, 2021
Nanocellulose is a common term used for different cellulose in nano-range, like nanocrystalline, microfibrillated, cellulose nanofibers, etc. CNCs and cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) are extracted from various sources like bacteria, tunicate or wood by means of various methods. Mostly nanocellulose is extracted by hydrolysis procedure via acid, enzymatic, mechanical, etc. CNCs possess a rod-like structure having a larger crystalline section in comparison to CNFs possess fibrillar structure. Dimensions of the nanocellulose are majorly depending upon the source of the cellulose [62].