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Marine-Based Carbohydrates as a Valuable Resource for Nutraceuticals and Biotechnological Application
Published in Se-Kwon Kim, Marine Biochemistry, 2023
Rajni Kumari, V. Vivekanand, Nidhi Pareek
It is classified on the basis of molecular size and degree of polymerization into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides (Knudsen et al., 2013). Monosaccharides are the simplest sugar and have the chemical formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms in a molecule (Vaclavik et al., 2008), that cannot be further hydrolyzed. The rest of the other saccharides are linked by glycosidic bonds and hydrolyzed into simpler units. For example, fructose, galactose, and glucose are the main source of energy preferentially utilized by the brain and red blood cells (Ferrier, 2014). Disaccharides comprise two monomer sugar units linked by glycosidic bonds. Sucrose, lactose, trehalose, and maltose belong to disaccharides. Oligosaccharides are composed of a few monosaccharide units (2 to 20 units) (Roberfroid and Slavin, 2000) which are soluble in 80% ethanol, but intestinal enzymes are unable to digest them. Fructo-oligosaccharides, galacto-oligosaccharides, and mannan-oligosaccharides are examples of oligosaccharides (Englyst et al., 2007). Polysaccharides belong to high-molecular-weight polymeric monosaccharide units, and the degree of polymerization ranges from 70,000 to 90,000, depending on the type of polysaccharide (BeMiller, 2018). They are neither sweet in taste nor utilized directly like other carbohydrates. They may be linear (starch, cellulose) or branched (amylopectin, glycogen), homopolysaccharides (cellulose, glycogen) or heteropolysaccharides (hyaluronic acid, arabinoxylans) (Slavin, 2012).
Introduction to Nanosensors
Published in Vinod Kumar Khanna, Nanosensors, 2021
Carbohydrates are a class of biological molecules composed of carbon with hydrogen and oxygen, in the ratio of two O atoms and one H atom per C atom. Carbohydrates are represented by the general formula Cx(H2O)y, where x is any number between 3 and 8, and y represents the number of water molecules. The formula shows that a carbohydrate molecule contains x carbon atoms attached to y water molecules. This explains the origin of the name ‘carbohydrates’, which translates to carbon water or watered carbon; hence carbohydrates literally mean hydrated carbon. Carbohydrates are of three types: monosaccharides {general formula (CH2O)n where n≥3}; disaccharides; and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugars like glucose (blood sugar) and fructose (fruit sugar). Disaccharides and polysaccharides contain two and multiple units of monosaccharides, respectively. Examples of disaccharides are sucrose (cane sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose (malt sugar), with the general formula C12H22O11; while those of polysaccharides include starch and cellulose.
Biocomposites and Nanocomposites
Published in Amit Sachdeva, Pramod Kumar Singh, Hee Woo Rhee, Composite Materials, 2021
C. H. Lee, S. H. Lee, F. N. M. Padzil, Z. M. A. Ainun, M. N. F. Norrrahim, K. L. Chin
Polysaccharides are biological polymers composed of monosaccharide units with glycosidic linkages, known as long chains of carbohydrate molecules. The chain can be linear or branched, which may influence its reaction to water. The functions of polysaccharides in living organisms are structure-related like cellulose and chitin or storage-related like starch and glycogen. A polysaccharide that contains all the same type of monosaccharide repeating units is called homopolysaccharide or homoglycan but if more than one type of monosaccharide is present then it is named heteropolysaccharide or heteroglycan. The chemical formulae of monosaccharide and polysaccharide are (CH2O)n and Cx(H2O)y, respectively. Glucose, fructose, and glyceraldehyde are examples of monosaccharides.
A Review on the Application of Starch as Depressant in Iron Ore Flotation
Published in Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 2022
Swagat S. Rath, Hrushikesh Sahoo
Starch is an energetic vegetative reserve photosynthesized by plants and stored in the cereals, fruits, roots tubers, and legumes in the range of 25–90% (De Ojogbo, Blanchard and Mekonnen 2018; Sousa et al. 2017). It is a natural semicrystalline polymer under the class of homopolysaccharides. Its simple chemical representation is (C6H10O5)n, where “n” represents the units of aldo-hexose, a monosaccharide. Starch is composed of two types of α-D-glucan chains, namely amylose and amylopectin. The other minor components are proteins, fatty acids, phosphorus, and some inorganic contaminants. Amylose is a linear glucose chain attached by α-1,4 glucosidase bond, whereas amylopectin is a branched glucose chain with branching at α-1,6 position (De Sousa et al. 2017). The polymerization index “n,” and hence, the molecular weight of starch and the ratio between the number of amylopectin and amylose species vary in a wide range. Figure 1 presents the structures of amylopectin and amylose chains.
A polysaccharide/chitin hydrogel wound dressing from a Periplanattica americana residue: coagulation, antioxidant activity, and wound healing properties
Published in Journal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Edition, 2023
Xuehua Li, Xin Xiao, Yali Liu, Jie Zhou, Hanwen Hu, Tao Yang, Haimei Yuan, Qin Song
The monosaccharide composition influences the physicochemical properties and the biological activities of polysaccharides. The polysaccharides were hydrolyzed and compared with standards using IC to identify the compositions and ratios of their constituent monosaccharides (Figure 2). The FTIR results of PAP showed that the fractions contained amino signals, and the presence of amino monosaccharides was verified by IC. PAP comprised 11 monosaccharides: arabinose, fucose, galactose, glucose, xylose, mannose, galacturonic acid, glucuronic acid, galactosamine, mannosamine, and glucosamine. According to the monosaccharide standard curve, the molar ratio of PAP was 1:0.10:2.86:3.91:0.59:0.47:0.34:0.51:2.83:1.39:1.90.
Antidiabetic potential evaluation of aqueous extract of waste Syzygium cumini seed kernel’s by in vitro α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition
Published in Preparative Biochemistry & Biotechnology, 2021
Komal V. Mahindrakar, Virendra K. Rathod
Digestive enzymes α-amylase and α-glucosidase show catalytic actions in the body. α-Amylase partially hydrolyzes the starch into maltose, dextrin, and maltotriose. Afterward, these oligosaccharides and disaccharides break down into monosaccharides in the small intestine by α-glucosidase. The action of these enzymes increases the serum glucose level in DM-II patients. Hindering this hydrolysis by inhibiting the enzymes may control the blood glucose levels and decreases the disease-related complications in the DM-II patients.[41] Hence, SCKP aqueous extract is implicated in checking the α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzyme inhibitor's potential.