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Overview of Cell Culture Processes
Published in Wei-Shou Hu, Cell Culture Bioprocess Engineering, 2020
The most effective way to fight viral diseases has been widespread immunization by vaccines. The majority of viral vaccines are now produced in cell culture. While animal tissues are no longer used, embryonated eggs are still part of the production of many viruses, including influenza virus. Because of their prophylactic nature and impact on public health, vaccines do not command the same price as therapeutic proteins. The combined commercial value of vaccines is substantially lower than the total of pharmaceuticals, with total annual sales worldwide in the order of ~30 billion US dollars in 2015. Influenza virus vaccines, among the few viral vaccines with an annual sales value of more than 1 billion US dollars, have only about 10% of their doses produced in cell cultures. The rest are still produced in chicken eggs. Table 1.1 lists a number of viral vaccines for human use. Although viral vaccines have made major strides in advancing health care, many viral diseases, such as HIV, are still in need of vaccines.
Glossary of scientific and technical terms in bioengineering and biological engineering
Published in Megh R. Goyal, Scientific and Technical Terms in Bioengineering and Biological Engineering, 2018
Immunization refers to the production of immunity in an individual by artificial means. Active immunization involves the introduction, either orally or by infection, of specially treated bacteria, viruses or their toxins so as to stimulate the production of antibodies.
An integer programming model for the deployment of mobile health clinics
Published in IISE Transactions on Healthcare Systems Engineering, 2023
Ang Li, Jiming Peng, Bilal Majeed, Sanghamitra M. Misra
One of the essential service areas for MHCs is providing immunizations. Immunizations have been recognized as one of the most cost-effective strategies for the prevention and control of infectious diseases (Andre et al., 2008; Majeed et al., 2021). An essential concept in epidemiology is herd immunity (Fine, 1993), which represents the protection of a community from particular contagious diseases by the presence of immune individuals. The critical percentage of immune individuals required to achieve herd immunity is referred to as the herd immunity threshold (HIT) (Majeed et al., 2021), and an effective method to achieve herd immunity is through immunizations. Unfortunately, immunization rates are low in economically disadvantaged and under-resourced communities (Schoen et al., 2013). As an example, we examined the Houston Independent School District (HISD) and its affiliated communities. Houston Independent School District personnel check immunization records of all students at the time of admission to prekindergarten, kindergarten, and seventh-grade. Students not compliant with the state-mandated immunization requirements are considered delinquent students. The number of delinquent students is defined as the demand for immunization services. As observed in (Majeed et al., 2021), the delinquency rates for several immunizations at these grade levels are high, and the rates are highest among those schools with a large number of economically disadvantaged students, which includes 280 schools and serves 209,772 students with 80% economically disadvantaged students.