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Smart Nanosensors in Healthcare Recent Developments and Applications
Published in Suresh Kaushik, Vijay Soni, Efstathia Skotti, Nanosensors for Futuristic Smart and Intelligent Healthcare Systems, 2022
Usage of biomarkers or specific metabolites in specifically blood, urine, or saliva for malaria diagnosis is an important aspect to combat or eradicate malaria in endemic regions. Hemozoin is an important biomarker for early diagnosis (Hede et al. 2018, Obisesan et al. 2019). This biomarker is conjugated with paramagnetic nanoparticles present in parasites. Hemozoin, which is similar to β-hematin, is important in sensor devices for malarial diagnosis, which gives stable and reliable results. Another device uses metallic nanoparticles based on CuO, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 to develop an electrochemical sensor to detect β-hematin for malaria diagnosis. β-hematin present on solution gets reduced on an electrochemical rod made up of nanoparticle-based electrode (Obisesan et al. 2019).
Reactivity and Bio Samples Probed by Tip-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy
Published in Marc Lamy de la Chapelle, Nordin Felidj, Plasmonics in Chemistry and Biology, 2019
Zhenglong Zhang, Robert Meyer, Volker Deckert
Finally, it is worth to mention that TERS has also been applied to blood cells, in particular toward hemozoin crystals in the digestive vacuole of a sectioned malaria parasite-infected cell [66]. Hemozoin is formed by the disposal of hemoglobin by malaria parasite (e.g., Plasmodium falciparum). The malaria-infected cell was imaged by AFM, showing that hemozoin crystals protruded from these sections. Measured TERS spectra on crystals could be distinguished from heme spectra and showing a prominent oxidation state marker band, demonstrating that the iron was in high spin state [Fe(III)]. This study demonstrates the detection of hemozoin crystals without any obligated isolation from the affected cells. Thus, representing the potential toward the detection of anti-malaria drugs binding to hemozoin crystals similar to the previous cytochrome c studies. Since this study almost unlocked TERS capability of characterizing malaria parasites and a possible detection for drugs binding on the pathogens, the following chapter will emphasize TERS potency toward a reliable virus and bacteria identification.
Confocal Raman microscopy
Published in Raquel Seruca, Jasjit S. Suri, João M. Sanches, Fluorescence Imaging and Biological Quantification, 2017
M. Gomez-Lazaro, A. Freitas, C.C. Ribeiro
Another illustration for the potential use of Raman spectroscopy into the clinics is exemplified by a work published in the Journal of the Royal Society of Chemistry, where the authors showed the promising use of this technology in the diagnosis of malaria infection severity. The malaria pigment (hemozoin), a substance difficult to degrade, accumulates within macrophages during malaria infection. Through Raman spectroscopy it has been shown that it is possible to identify this substance without any previous sample processing (1638 cm−1 peak), and the measurement of its amount, within the cell, can be used as a predictor for disease severity [41].
An in vitro study on the differentiated metabolic mechanism of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum using high-resolution metabolomics
Published in Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 2021
Jinhyuk Na, Jian Zhang, Young Lan Choe, Chae Seung Lim, Youngja Hwang Park
Glutathione (GSH) is the most important metabolite in antioxidant and defensive mechanisms for both Plasmodium and RBCs, since both Plasmodium and Plasmodium-infected RBCs encounter oxidative stress induced by release of heme, which is a product of the digestive activity of the parasite (Atamna and Ginsburg 1993). In addition to the detoxification mechanism following biocrystallization of heme to hemozoin in the parasite’s food vacuole (Sigala and Goldberg 2014), previous in vitro studies reported that GSH exerted antioxidant properties against heme (Atamna and Ginsburg 1995; Loria et al. 1999). Further, Rider et al. (2007) also found that spermidine exerts protective properties against cells from influence of reactive oxygen species (ROS), apart from antioxidant protection by GSH, even if the specific biological role of spermidine in humans remains unknown. Employing HRM, it was noted that antioxidant-related metabolites such as GSH, γ-L-glutamyl-L-cysteine, and spermidine in RBCs, as well as cysteine, cysteic acid, and spermidine in the media, were significantly altered in Pf3D7 and PfDd2. This study found increased intensities of GSH and its biosynthetic precursor, γ-L-glutamyl-L-cysteine, in Pf3D7-infected RBCs; however, no marked changes were observed in PfDd2-infected RBCs after treatment with CQ. Further, cysteine, a source of GSH, and its oxidized form, cysteic acid, were significantly altered in Dd2-CQ compared to 3D7-CQ in both cells and medium. In addition, spermidine displayed a significantly low intensity in Dd2-CQ of RBCs and medium. Percario et al. (2012) demonstrated that CQ enhanced oxidative stress in Plasmodium. Therefore, data suggest that PfDd2-infected RBCs treated with CQ were under significant oxidative conditions.