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Skeletal Muscle
Published in Nassir H. Sabah, Neuromuscular Fundamentals, 2020
The endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium are interconnected together and blend with tendons and aponeuroses. Tendon is a tough, fibrous, whitish, cord-like tissue that connects muscle to bone and is composed of parallel arrays of closely packed fibers that are mostly collagen. The collagen fibers aggregate to form fascicles that are surrounded by connective tissue. Bundles of fascicles, as well as the tendon as a whole, are surrounded in turn by connective tissue. Some tendons are surrounded, in addition, by a sheath that encloses synovial fluid, which acts as a lubricant that reduces friction associated with tendon movements. Tendons include blood vessels and fibroblasts for maintaining tendon tissue, as well as a type of receptor, the Golgi tendon organ (Section 9.4.1) that responds to tension in the tendon.
Bionic Design of Artificial Muscle Based on Biomechanical Models of Skeletal Muscle
Published in Yuehong Yin, Biomechanical Principles on Force Generation and Control of Skeletal Muscle and their Applications in Robotic Exoskeleton, 2020
The proprioceptors of skeletal muscle can be divided into two kinds, the Golgi tendon organ (GTO) and muscle spindles. GTOs are located in the connecting part of skeletal muscle and tendon and interact with tendon fibers. When muscle contracts, GTOs can detect the force change of motor units sensitively. Thus, GTOs can be regarded as the force sensors integrated inside muscle. Muscle spindle is a special kind of muscle fiber integrated inside muscle. It is wrapped by spindle capsule. Thus, it is also called as intramuscular spindle. Other muscle fibers are called as outer muscle spindles. They are parallel to each other. There are two kinds of intramuscular spindles: the nuclear bag type and nuclear chain type. Nuclear bag is able to detect the change rate of skeletal muscle length and velocity, while nuclear chain is able to detect the length of skeletal muscle. Thus, muscle spindle can be seen as the displacement sensor integrated inside the muscle. The properties of muscle spindle make it significant in reflection response, proprioception, and motion and position control. The functional unit of skeletal muscle is called motor unit. One motor unit is composed of one motoneuron and all the muscle fibers dominated by this motoneuron. This functional unit and the proprioceptors consist of the complete force and displacement double-closed-loop control of skeletal muscle, as illustrated in Figure 6.20.
Human and Biomimetic Sensors
Published in Patrick F. Dunn, Fundamentals of Sensors for Engineering and Science, 2019
The muscle spindle is stretched when a muscle lengthens. This causes contractile proteins, located at the ends of the intrafusal fibers, mechanically to open ion channels in the dendrites, generating an action potential in its neuron. Collagen fibers within the Golgi tendon organ, in response to muscle contraction, contract and squeeze sensory afferent nerve dendrites, mechanically opening ion channels. A similar mechanical opening of ion channels occurs in joint receptors. All of these proprioceptors connect synaptically in the spinal cord with afferent pathway neurons that travel to the brain’s central nervous system and either directly or indirectly with somatic motor neurons. The direct connection to somatic motor neurons is involved in the monosynaptic stretch reflex such as the knee-jerk reflex. The indirect connection is utilized in movement as a response to a painful stimulus.
Development of electronics-free force receptor for pneumatic actuators
Published in Advanced Robotics, 2022
Yoichi Masuda, Ryo Wakamoto, Masato Ishikawa
Animals have a sensory receptor called the Golgi tendon organ that detects muscle force. Sensory information is sent to the spinal nerves when the Golgi tendon organ receives force. The nerves that receive sensory information send motor commands to the muscle, and, as a result, the muscles contract reflexively. In resting animals, the Golgi tendon organ has an inhibitory effect on motor neurons. During locomotion, such as walking, the Golgi tendon organ has excitatory connections to motorneurons. This phenomenon is called state-dependent reflex reversal [20]. We reproduce the function of the latter excitatory feedback. In this article, we report a mechanical reflex device that reproduces the basic function of the Golgi tendon organ. The device outputs an air pressure corresponding to the strength of the muscle force instead of sensor information when it receives an input muscle force, causing the artificial muscle to contract.
Multi-objective robust design approach usage in integration of bond graph and genetic programming
Published in International Journal of Modelling and Simulation, 2022
Behzad Bahrami Joo, Ali Jamali, Nader Nariman-zadeh
Vahdati [13] used bond graph modeling method to present a new semi-active fluid mount consists of a conventional single-pumper and a 3-layer piezoelectric cantilever beam which has a tunable notch frequency. Mughal [14] presented a theoretical framework of bond graph method for modeling of a biomechanical system including skeletal muscle, muscle spindle and Golgi tendon organ. Singh and Bera [15] used bond graph to develop a thermal model of a twin-tube hydraulic shock absorber. They also compared their results with the experimental results of a rear shock absorber of a commercial passenger sedan. Jalali [16] proposed an analytical transfer patch algorithm based on bond graph for investigating behavior of an electro-hydro-mechanical system. In order to obtain adequate gains for stabilizing the observer, Fathallah presented a new concept based on bond graph graphical approach [17]. Mahato et al. [18] derived a relationship between soft switch parameters and the overall energy loss of the on/off controlled hydraulic system. For this reason, they modeled three different system without and with soft switch by utilizing bond graph technique. Kebdani et al. [19] used bond graph theory to investigate the dynamic model of a brazed plate condenser (BPC). They discretized the model into five control volumes and employed 20-sim software and Runge-Kutta method for extracting mass and energy equations. Ghani Ovy [20] developed an analytical model of a ball bearing capable of locating all contact points between inner ring, balls and outer ring. He used bond graph method for modeling of bearing geometry and for connecting each point of the multi-body system.
Anthropomorphic musculoskeletal 10 degrees-of-freedom robot arm driven by pneumatic artificial muscles
Published in Advanced Robotics, 2018
Arne Hitzmann, Hiroaki Masuda, Shuhei Ikemoto, Koh Hosoda
Biological muscles have different sensory receptors used for force control, sensing, and the triggering of reflexes. To integrate this additional source of feedback and thereby allow a more realistic representation human muscle control, a device was developed that senses the muscle's tension. It was inspired by Golgi Tendon Organ [21] which senses the force a muscle is exposed to. Further is it hypothesized that together the parameter sets of muscle pressures and tensions is sufficient for determining the spatial positioning of the hand and arm, allowing basic forward kinematics.