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Toxic Responses of the Female Reproductive System
Published in Stephen K. Hall, Joana Chakraborty, Randall J. Ruch, Chemical Exposure and Toxic Responses, 2020
Joana Chakraborty, Maureen McCorquodale
The central nervous system (CNS) plays an integrative role in the reproductive process. The neurons in the hypothalamus of the brain secrete the gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). The anterior pituitary cells have receptors for GnRH. In response to GnRH, the anterior pituitary cells secrete follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH secretion is necessary for the development of the follicles, while both FSH and LH are needed for their final maturation and a burst of LH is required for ovulation and the initiation of corpus luteum formation. Estrogens, the female sex hormones, are produced by the theca cells and the corpus luteum. Granulosa cells also produce estrogens, which remain in the follicular fluid. Mature corpus luteum secretes progesterone. Progesterone is responsible for changes in the endometrium of the uterus. If the implantation takes place, then the early embryo, is capable of prolonging the life of the corpus luteum. The implanting embryo, which is now called the blastocyst is composed of different types of cells. The syncytiotrophoblast cells of the blastocyst produce a hormone which is called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). This hormone is critical for maintaining the progestagenic activity of the corpus luteum. After the formation of the placenta, various hormones are secreted by this organ which become central to the maintenance of pregnancy. Exogenous chemicals altering the placental activity may be damaging or lethal to the fetus.
The effect of sex hormones on skeletal muscle adaptation in females
Published in European Journal of Sport Science, 2022
Sarah E. Alexander, Alexander C. Pollock, Séverine Lamon
Estrogens and progestogens are the major female hormones. Estrogens are produced by the corpus luteum of the ovary, the placenta and to a lesser extent by adipose and other peripheral tissues, and are responsible for the development, regulation and maintenance of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics (Cui, Shen, & Li, 2013). The major bioactive estrogens are estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3) (Cui et al., 2013). Progestogens, including the most abundant form progesterone, are primarily produced by the corpus luteum of the ovary and regulate the female menstrual cycle and pregnancy (Taraborrelli, 2015). The specific receptors for estrogens (ER) and progestogens (PR) are also expressed in human skeletal muscle (Ekenros et al., 2017). Unlike androgens and progestogens, which have a single receptor (the AR and the PR), there are multiple ERs found in both the cytosol (ERα and ERβ) and the sarcolemma of myocytes, including the g-protein coupled estrogen receptors (GPER), estrogen receptor-X (ER-X) and Gq-coupled membrane estrogen receptor (Gq-mER). These receptors act together to facilitate the function of female sex hormones in the regulation of muscle mass and contractility. The reason for multiple estrogen receptors in skeletal muscle is unclear but may stem from evolution.