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Hearing, Proprioception, and the Chemical Senses
Published in Robert W. Proctor, Van Zandt Trisha, Human Factors in Simple and Complex Systems, 2018
Robert W. Proctor, Van Zandt Trisha
Unlike the optic nerve, the auditory nerve projects to several small neural structures before reaching the thalamus. These structures process several important parts of the auditory signal, such as interaural time differences (the time differences between signals to the two ears) and interaural intensity differences (the intensity differences between the two ears). This allows the extraction of spatial information, or where a sound is coming from. Some parts of the pathway perform complex analyses of the frequencies of the sound, in essence taking apart the different frequencies of a sound wave that the neurons from the basilar membrane put together. Eventually, the auditory signal reaches the thalamus, which then sends the signal on to the auditory cortex, located in the brain’s temporal lobes. The temporal lobes are located in front of the occipital lobe, approximately at the level of each ear.
Key human anatomy and physiology principles as they relate to rehabilitation engineering
Published in Alex Mihailidis, Roger Smith, Rehabilitation Engineering, 2023
Qussai Obiedat, Bhagwant S. Sindhu, Ying-Chih Wang
When a stimulus occurs, the sensory neurons receive signals through sensory receptors, detect internal or external stimuli, and generate electrical impulses. Touch, pressure, temperature, pain sensation from the skin, muscle spindles embedded in muscles, joint proprioception around joint capsules, and senses of vision, auditory, and olfactory signals are examples of the sensory receptors in the body. Signals from multiple sources travel to the thalamus via ascending pathways in the spinal cord and are further relayed to specific areas of the cerebral cortex for interpretation and integration. The thalamus is the principal relay station for all sensory input, except olfaction, to the cerebral cortex from the spinal cord, brain stem, cerebellum, and other parts of the cerebrum. The primary auditory cortex interprets characteristics of sound and hearing. The primary visual cortex receives inputs concerning shape, color, and movement. The primary olfactory area receives impulses for smell. If an action is required, the primary motor cortex, the region of the cerebral cortex involved in the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements, transmits nerve impulses to the muscles via motor neurons (i.e., descending pathways) and makes muscles move (e.g., drinking a cup of tea, shooting a basketball, dancing). While performing a sequence of movements, the brain continues to receive feedback such as perception of movement and spatial orientation from the head and body. Besides the motor cortex, the cerebellum and the basal ganglia make essential and distinct contributions to motor control. The cerebellum reduces movement errors by detecting differences between intended and actual movements and modulates movements via its projections to the upper motor neurons. In contrast, inputs to the basal ganglia facilitate proper initiation of movement and prevent unwanted movements by tonic inhibition (Lundy-Ekman 2013).
An emergent deep developmental model for auditory learning
Published in Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence, 2020
Dongshu Wang, Yadong Zhang, Jianbin Xin
Sound features extracted by the auditory periphery are processed through the auditory cortex and finally transmitted to the cerebral cortex. The auditory centre is composed of multiple nerve nuclei, and the complex connection among these nuclei constitutes an important part of the auditory pathway.