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Anatomy, physiology and disease
Published in C M Langton, C F Njeh, The Physical Measurement of Bone, 2016
It should be noted that the three essential elements of the skeleton (bone cells, bone matrix and bone mineralization) must be considered within the framework of how bone is organized. The skeleton is composed of two parts: an axial skeleton which includes the vertebrae, pelvis and other flat bones such as the skull and sternum; and an appendicular skeleton, which includes all the long bones. The vertebrae are principally composed of cancellous or trabecular bone, i.e. finely striated bone with a large surface area made up of branching lattices oriented along lines of stress and interspersed with the bone marrow. Trabecular bone has a very high rate of turnover and an extremely large surface area. In contrast, cortical bone, which is the principal component of long bones, is four times more dense than trabecular bone, but is metabolically less active and has less surface area. In contrast to trabecular bone, cortical bone is subject to bending and torsional forces as well as compressive loading.
Designing for Upper Torso and Arm Anatomy
Published in Karen L. LaBat, Karen S. Ryan, Human Body, 2019
The spine and rib cage form the axial skeleton in the upper torso. The rib cage, introduced earlier for its protective functions and as part of the respiratory pump, helps stabilize the thoracic spine. The pectoral (shoulder) girdle—the bones supporting the upper limb—are attached, or “appended” to the rib cage at the upper section of the sternum—the manubrium. The pectoral girdle and the arm/wrist/hand bones are part of the appendicular skeleton.
The potential role of variations in juvenile hip geometry on the development of Legg-Calvé-Perthes disease: a biomechanical investigation
Published in Computer Methods in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering, 2018
Manuel da Silva Pinheiro, Catherine Dobson, Nicholas M. Clarke, Michael Fagan
One of the most plausible triggers of the disease is the altered biomechanics differences observed between the healthy and pathological hip. The morphological variations include lateral displacement of the femoral head, widening of the joint space, broadening and shortening of the femoral neck, widening and reduction of the acetabular depth, and flattening and subluxation of the femoral head. For instance, Pienkowski et al. (2009) observed a statistically significant difference between the femoral head size and acetabular radius in children (average age 8.2 years) with unilateral LCP, with the affected hips having greater femoral head size and acetabular radius, with the radius ratio between femoral head and acetabulum being smaller than in normal hips. The average centre-to-centre distance was also significantly higher in LCP (of 3.0 ± 1.3 (SD) mm) when compared with 1.2 ± 0.5 (SD) mm in the normal side. In addition, Huhnstock et al. (2014) analysed the changes in the acetabulum in children with unilateral LCP and observed that during the first year after the diagnosis. The acetabular depth-to-width ratio (ADR) decreased when compared with the normal hip, due to a decrease in depth of 10% and an increase in width of 10%. However, whether these differences are a cause or a consequence of the disease is still unclear. In addition, retardation of bone growth in the appendicular skeleton is also very common in LCP patients, typically of 1 to 2 years (Kim and Herring 2013).
Benzo[a]pyrene osteotoxicity and the regulatory roles of genetic and epigenetic factors: A review
Published in Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2022
Jiezhang Mo, Doris Wai-Ting Au, Jiahua Guo, Christoph Winkler, Richard Yuen-Chong Kong, Frauke Seemann
Bone and cartilage, both of which originate from the embryonic mesenchyme, are the two tissue types known to constitute the skeletal system. Osteogenesis (bone development) occurs either by endochondral or intramembranous ossification. The former is the process of replacing previously formed cartilage scaffolds with bone tissue, while the latter involves the direct conversion of the mesenchyme into bone tissue (Baek & Kim, 2011). Intramembranous ossification is the process that forms flat bones (such as craniofacial bones), while endochondral ossification typically occurs in the appendicular skeleton (such as long bones) (Raggatt & Partridge, 2010; Teti, 2011).