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Social Psychology
Published in Mohamed Ahmed Abd El-Hay, Understanding Psychology for Medicine and Nursing, 2019
Self-concept is often divided into a cognitive component, known as the self-schema, and an evaluative component, the self-esteem. Self-schemas refer to beliefs that people have about themselves and guide the processing of self-reliant information, e.g., when you see a job advertisement for a teacher, you can evaluate the match between your teacher schema and your self-schema to decide whether you should apply for the job. Every person has more than one self-schema, e.g., an athletic university student may have multiple self-schemas that process different information related to each self: the student-self processes information related to a student, e.g., taking notes in class, completing a homework assignment, etc., and the athlete-self processes information about things related to being an athlete e.g., recognizing an incoming pass, aiming a shot, etc. (Markus, 1977). If a self is not part of one’s identity, then it will be difficult for one to behave accordingly, e.g., a civilian may not be familiar with how to handle a hostile threat as a trained Marine. In contrast to civilians, Marines have a self that enables them to process information about hostile threats and react accordingly.
The Mindfulness Evolution of CBT
Published in Marcia L. Rosal, Cognitive-Behavioral Art Therapy, 2018
The second tenet is that although humans perceive the world as being made up of many separate things, in reality everything is one distinct whole. As Matos (1979) stated, “Everything is flowing in the River of Life-Death-Rebirth, in this Cosmic Dance of Oneness” (p. 20). Although humans see or perceive an endless number of separated entities, this can be easily misconstrued as reality and is thus a misconception. According to Matos, this tenet leads to a third significant concept, that people create a dualistic worldview. A dualistic perspective begins with the development of an ego. With the creation of the ego (or self-schema), individuals begin to perceive a division between the self and the environment. Matos clarified this concept by stating that “This reality may be very useful as long as we know that the conceptual construction is just a mind construction and not what is” (p. 21).
What is the self?
Published in Tamara Ownsworth, Self-Identity after Brain Injury, 2014
Self-schemas have a pervasive impact on how self-related information is processed. New information about self is more likely to be processed in a manner that is congruent with an existing self-schema (Markus, 1977). People therefore look to confirm or verify existing beliefs about themselves from both a motivational and cognitive perspective. Most people have an inherent motive for self-enhancement, thus positive feedback and recall of events favourable to self are more readily accessed in non-depressed individuals (Eisenstadt et al., 2002). Hence, adaptive self-schemas contribute to optimistic self-expectations, positive attentional biases and mood-congruent recall of events. Conversely, maladaptive self-schemas (e.g., ‘I’m worthless and unlovable’) lead to negative self-expectations, biases in information processing (i.e., cognitive distortions) and mood-congruent recall of events (Eisenstadt et al., 2002). People's trait self-esteem influences how they incorporate new information about self into their existing self-schema. In particular, people with high self-esteem more readily assimilate positive feedback into their self-schema, whilst those low in self-esteem more readily assimilate feedback about failure (Stake, Huff, & Zand, 1995).
The Relational Self-Schema Measure: Assessing Psychological Needs in Multiple Self-with-Other Representations
Published in Journal of Personality Assessment, 2022
Walter D. Scott, Suzanna L. Penningroth, Stephen Paup, Xingzi Li, Delaney Adams, Blake Mallory
This more complex view of self-schema structure has large assessment implications. Namely, self-schemata ought to be assessed as multiple self-with-other cognitive structures that include content represented in self-schema scripts and goals (Baldwin, 1992; McConnell, 2011). Yet, in line with Markus’s (1977) original emphasis on the self as a generalized cognitive structure, self-report measures of self-schemata have largely assessed the self as a unitary construct unlinked to specific relational contexts. For instance, clinical researchers (e.g., De Graaf et al., 2009) continue to use the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS; Weissman & Beck, 1978). The DAS assesses maladaptive self-schemata by having respondents indicate their level of agreement with a variety of rigid negative beliefs (e.g., “If I fail partly, it is as bad as being a complete failure”). Notably, the DAS does not ask respondents to indicate the extent to which these attitudes are present with specific others or in specific roles or contexts. Instead, self-schema content is limited to perfectionistic standards for performance in general and standards for self-worth contingent on interpersonal acceptance in general (De Graaf et al., 2009).
Expectancy-value beliefs, identity, and physical activity among adults with visual impairments
Published in Disability and Rehabilitation, 2021
In addition to factors that exert a direct influence on behavior engagement, expectancy-value theory also describes variables that are said to have a direct or indirect relationship with expectancy beliefs or subjective task value, including self-schema and identity beliefs [17,22]. Self-schema are general beliefs about what kind of person one thinks themselves to be based on lived experience [17,22]. Personal identity beliefs are more focused and concern only one’s perception of their individual traits (e.g., soccer player, non-athlete), while collective identities are related to membership within a certain group (e.g., disability identity, ethnic identity). Though these constructs are underemphasized in the model compared to expectancy beliefs and subjective task values, Eccles [22] expounded upon the constructs and their connections to other factors by stating that behavioral choice is a means by which one supports identity beliefs. That is, identity-supportive behaviors are more valuable to the individual and are more likely to be pursued than behaviors that either undermine or are not related to one’s personal or collective identities.
Effects of drinker self-schema on drinking- and smoking-related information processing and behaviors
Published in Substance Abuse, 2018
Chia-Kuie Lee, Karen F. Stein, Colleen Corte
A plausible explanation for the null findings related to response latency may be attributed to the methodology. This kind of cognitive task has been conducted in previous studies to show the information processing advantages of a self-schema, i.e., having a self-schema in a domain leads to faster processing of schema-consistent information.12,34–37 This was the first study, however, to apply this methodology to the drinker self-schema. Because of the known effects of alcohol on speed of processing,38 it is possible that drinking heavily the night before had a residual effect on speed of processing on the data collection day. This may result in nonsignificant effects of the drinker self-schema on response latency time for drinking- and smoking-related stimuli. Although students were not intoxicated when they participated in this study, it is possible that recent high levels of alcohol use may have led to slower response latency times. Therefore, it is unclear whether the response latency patterns in our study were influenced by recent drinking behaviors. Given that 11.1% (n = 11) of our sample reported heavy drinking (5 or more drinks for men and 4 or more drinks for women) within the 24 hours prior to completing the attribute rating task, this explanation of the nonsignificant findings is plausible. As such, future studies should take into account the amount of alcohol intake and other drug use within 24 hours of data collection in studies incorporating cognitive processing tasks.