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Fundamentals of Modern Peptide Synthesis
Published in Mesut Karahan, Synthetic Peptide Vaccine Models, 2021
Vauquelin and Robique (1806) isolated the first amino acid from Asparagus sativus; they named the amino acid asparagine (Vauquelin and Robique 1806). After glycine was discovered from gelatin hydrolysate (Braconnot 1820) Rose et al. described threonine from food ingredients in 1935 (Rose et al. 1935). Later, the last two of the 22 proteinogenic amino acids, selenocysteine and pyrrolysine, were discovered in 1986 (Zinoni et al. 1986) and 2002 (Srinivasan et al. 2002).
Biochemical Parameters and Childhood Nutritional Anemia
Published in Anil Gupta, Biochemical Parameters and the Nutritional Status of Children, 2020
A biochemical test for homocysteine estimates the concentration of homocysteine in plasma. Homocysteine is a non-proteinogenic amino acid. It is a homolog of cysteine amino acid, with the difference being the presence of an additional methylene bridge. It is synthesized from methionine through the elimination of the terminal methyl group.
Molecular Biology Tools to Boost the Production of Natural Products
Published in Luzia Valentina Modolo, Mary Ann Foglio, Brazilian Medicinal Plants, 2019
Luzia Valentina Modolo, Samuel Chaves-Silva, Thamara Ferreira da Silva, Cristiane Jovelina da-Silva
Since the beginning of the 2010s, the CRISPR/Cas9 system has efficiently edited specific genes in bacteria (Jiang et al., 2013), mice (Yin et al., 2014), human cells (Cong et al., 2013) and plants (Ito et al., 2015). In the scope of plants, CRISPR/Cas9 has been used to edit genes in crops such as O. sativa, Solanum lycopersicum, Zea mays and Triticum aestivum (Mishra and Zhao, 2018). This technology was employed to increase the levels of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in S. lycopersicum (Nonaka et al., 2017). GABA is a non-proteinogenic amino acid that possesses hypotensive properties.
Recent advances in proteolytic stability for peptide, protein, and antibody drug discovery
Published in Expert Opinion on Drug Discovery, 2021
Xianyin Lai, Jason Tang, Mohamed E.H. ElSayed
In addition to the 20 proteinogenic amino acids, more than 800 natural amino acids are known in the literature, while thousands of synthetic amino acids have been reported [98]. The incorporation of non-proteinogenic amino acids that are not found in natural polypeptide chains into a peptide sequence likely will increase the metabolic stability of an analog because the new groups cannot be recognized by the same enzymes. The approach has been applied to many peptide drugs which are on the market [99]. Non-proteinogenic amino acids can be classified into many categories with various terms based on chirality (L vs. D), specific atoms introduced (such as F, S), specific groups introduced (such as CH3), the backbone length (α- vs. β-amino acids), and their combinations. In this section, the most commonly used non-proteinogenic amino acids are discussed as examples.
Metabolomics markers in Neurology: current knowledge and future perspectives for therapeutic targeting
Published in Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 2020
Roberta Bonomo, Guido Cavaletti, Debra J. Skene
Metabolomics studies have also been used to investigate metabolic profiles and patho-mechanisms of myelin disruption in inflammatory neuropathies. A recent metabolomics approach based on blood analysis proposed disordered lipid metabolism as an indicator for Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) and its subtypes [202]. In 2018, Park and colleagues examined potential CSF biochemical linkage associated with the pathology of three GBS, including acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (AIDP), acute motor axonal neuropathy (AMAN), and Miller Fisher syndrome (MFS) [203]. Patients with GBS exhibited reduced conductance related to demyelination combined or not with axonal damage, which coupled with membrane lipid compounds. The CSF analysis of AMAN revealed significantly higher levels of SMs, suggestive of myelin damage [204], compared to the AIDP and MFS groups. In all three subtypes they observed elevated monoacylglycerols (1-monopalmitin and 1-monostearin) [203,205] and reduced levels of acetate, suggestive of an abnormality in myelin lipid biosynthesis [203,206–208]. CSF glucose was present at considerably higher levels in the MFS group [203]. Moreover, the significantly lower levels of acetoacetate, creatinine [202,209,210], and pyruvate [186], additionally supported the hypermetabolic status in MFS [203]. Proteinogenic amino acids were instead reduced [203]. Compared to MFS, AIDP and AMAN presented increased fatty acids, suggesting either reduced myelin lipid biosynthesis or critical demyelination process [203]. The AIDP group was further characterized by the highest levels of LysoPCs, which have been proposed as strong macrophage activation agents [211].