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Coronavirus Epidemics and the Current COVID-19 Pandemic
Published in Debmalya Barh, Kenneth Lundstrom, COVID-19, 2022
Aparna Bhardwaj, Prateek Kumar, Shivani Krishna Kapuganti, Vladimir N. Uversky, Rajanish Giri
The structural and accessory proteins are translation products of ~10 kb from the 3′ end one-third of the genome. The genes of these proteins are interspersed along the genome. As mentioned earlier, the structural proteins of SARS-CoV-2 are the S, E, M, and N proteins, and the ORFs code for accessory proteins ORF3a, ORF6, ORF7a, ORF8, ORF9, and ORF10, which are involved in the pathogenesis of the virus [40]. The structural proteins play crucial roles in pathogenesis, replication, viral packaging, and assembly [26]. Docking studies have shown that all four structural proteins interact with each other during their arrangement in the lipid bilayer [41]. The crystal structures of proteins from SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 are presented in Figure 1.3.
Modes of Transmission of Coronavirus
Published in Ram Shringar Raw, Vishal Jain, Sanjoy Das, Meenakshi Sharma, Pandemic Detection and Analysis Through Smart Computing Technologies, 2022
Mohd. Faiz Saifi, Colin E. Evans, Neha Gupta
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a dreadful disease caused by the CoVs, namely SARS-CoV and is characterized by some specific symptoms such as headache, extreme fever, and many severe symptoms of the respiratory tract such as short breath, pneumonia, and dry cough [61]. The pathogenic CoVs can infect humans and livestock such as mice, bats, and birds at various sites such as the gastrointestinal, respiratory, hepatic, and central nervous systems. Previously SARS-CoV belongs to the group of 2b (gene) CoV and now it is a member of lineage B of genus ß coronavirus belonging to the family of Coronaviridae and subfamily Coronavirinae [61]. The genome of SARS-CoV shares similarity to other coronaviruses, but have some specific unique genes including 3b, ORF3a, ORF7a, ORFa, 7b, ORF 8a, 8b, and 9b. Importantly, SARS-CoV interacts with the ACE-2 receptor of the host cell to infect bronchial epithelial cells and type II pneumocytes in the host. A recent spillover or outbreak of CoV strain (COVID-19) in China, in 2019, has gained attention all over the world, as continuous evolution and transformation led to the emergence of pandemic all over the world [62].
Recent trends in next generation immunoinformatics harnessed for universal coronavirus vaccine design
Published in Pathogens and Global Health, 2023
Chin Peng Lim, Boon Hui Kok, Hui Ting Lim, Candy Chuah, Badarulhisam Abdul Rahman, Abu Bakar Abdul Majeed, Michelle Wykes, Chiuan Herng Leow, Chiuan Yee Leow
Other proteins chosen for vaccine development includes 3CL hydrolase, nsp1, ORF3a protein and ORF7a protein. 3CL hydrolase is vital for proteolytic maturation of the virus. Short peptides were extracted from this protein as potential epitopes for both CTLs and HTLs in the design of a multiepitope vaccine [88]. The nsp1 may be a major virulence factor for coronaviruses as seen from its functions. It blocks host gene expression by preventing the translation involving 40S ribosomal subunit as well as degrades mRNA of the host cells. In infected cells, the expression of the IFN genes and the host antiviral signalling pathways were impeded [89]. E protein, ORF3a protein, N protein, ORF7a protein and M protein showed a remarkable linkage with the structural integrity and functionality of the virus [90]. ORF3a protein, N protein and M protein are important in the virus replication and function [91]. Figure 1 illustrates the open reading frames (ORFs) in coronavirus genome and a schematic coronavirus structure labelled with structural proteins.
The vital role of animal, marine, and microbial natural products against COVID-19
Published in Pharmaceutical Biology, 2022
Aljawharah A. Alqathama, Rizwan Ahmad, Ruba B. Alsaedi, Raghad A. Alghamdi, Ekram H. Abkar, Rola H. Alrehaly, Ashraf N. Abdalla
The 5′ cap end of the viral genome has a leader series and untranslated region (UTR) composed of multiple regions. These are crucial to the formation of the many stem loop structures that are necessary for RNA replication and transcription. At the accent gene there are transcriptional regulatory sequences (TRSs) composed of a specific portion of 50–100 nucleotides required for the expression of each of those genes. The RNA structures needed to replicate and synthesize RNA are located in the 3′ UTR. The two-third (20 kilobases) of the genome consists of replicase genes known as open reading frames 1a and ab (ORF1ab), and encoded non-structural proteins (nsp), whereas the remaining region of the total viral genome (10 kilobases) encodes structural and accent proteins such as structural proteins involving spike (S), envelope (E), membrane (M), and nucleocapsid (N) proteins. Furthermore, the structural genes such as ORF3a, ORF3d, ORF6, ORF7a, ORF7b, ORF8, ORF9b, ORF14, and ORF10 genes encode nine accessory proteins. The CoV genome is structured in the following order: 5′-leader-UTR-ORF-S-E-M-N-accessory proteins genome-3′ UTR-poly (A) tail with accessory genes interspersed among the structural genes at the 3′ end of the genome (Pal et al. 2020; Yadav et al. 2021).