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Terpenes: A Source of Novel Antimicrobials, Applications and Recent Advances
Published in Mahendra Rai, Chistiane M. Feitosa, Eco-Friendly Biobased Products Used in Microbial Diseases, 2022
Nawal M. Al Musayeib, Amina Musarat, Farah Maqsood
Later, Turner and Elsohly (1981) investigated the biological properties of cannabichromene and its related compounds. The results of their study showed that these compounds exhibited significant anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects. The cannabichromene and its homologs and isomers displayed strong antibacterial effects, whereas mild to moderate antifungal effects. Besides, this research group screened the antimicrobial potential of different cannabinoids towards fungi, Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Among all these compounds, cannabichromene and cannabigerol, their homologs and isomers were found most active components against fungi and bacteria assayed (Eisohly et al. 1982). A study reports the isolation of nine new cannabinoids and three of them namely 8-hydroxycannabinol, 4-acetoxy-2-geranyl-5-hydroxy-3-n-pentylphenol, and 5-acetyl-4-hydroxycannabigerol exerted significant antifungal (C. albicans), antibacterial (MRSA and S. aureus) and antileishmanial (Leishmania donovani) potential, respectively (Radwan et al. 2009). Another study has shown that pure cannabidiol, cannabichromene, cannabinol, cannabigerol and cannabigerolic acid were more effective in reducing the colony count of bacterial strains associated with dental plaque in comparison to commercial oral care products (Stahl and Vasudevan 2020).
Why Terpenes Matter—The Entourage Effect
Published in Betty Wedman-St Louis, Cannabis as Medicine, 2019
The primary cannabinoids in cannabis are: delta-9-THC, CBD, CBG, and CBC. Delta-9-THC is the most psychoactive compound with terpenes modifying its effects. THCV (tetrahydrocannabivarin) is a variant of THC found in some chemovars of cannabis with somewhat reduced psychoactivity. CBD occurs in almost all cannabis plants, is not psychoactive, and has many of the same therapeutic effects of THC. CBG (cannabigerol) is non-psychoactive and is a powerful analgesic. CBC (cannabichromene) is found mostly in immature plants and is similar to CBD. [The “A” cannabinoids are raw plant; those no “A” are decarboxylated plant compounds.]
Cannabis and Cannabinoids
Published in Dilip Ghosh, Pulok K. Mukherjee, Natural Medicines, 2019
The Cannabis plant, which may be of different species (principally Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica) or variants of the same species, is a dioecious entity that contains a number of unique resorcinol metabolites (van Bakel et al. 2011), although the estimated number may vary from 60–110. The most recognisable cannabinoid metabolite is Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Recent published data described the pharmacology of two of these agents, cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV) and concluded that these compounds exhibited complex interactions with the human endocannabinoid system. Apart from these three compounds, other cannabinoids showing pharmacological affects include cannabigerol, cannabidivarin, cannabidiolic acid and cannabichromene.
Cannabinoids and drug metabolizing enzymes: potential for drug-drug interactions and implications for drug safety and efficacy
Published in Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology, 2022
Keti Bardhi, Shelby Coates, Christy J.W. Watson, Philip Lazarus
In the plant, the precursors Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol acid (THCA) and cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) are decarboxylated via light and high temperature to produce THC and CBD [46,48]. In addition to the major cannabinoids, cannabis contains other minor phytocannabinoids such as cannabigerol (CBG), cannabichromene (CBC), and cannabidivarin (CBDV), as well as other minor constituents [46,49]. Another important cannabinoid is Δ8-THC, which is similar to Δ9-THC but has greater stability and fewer intoxicating effects [50], and whose recreational usage has grown in recent years [51]. Δ8-THC is present in minimal amounts in the cannabis plant, but it can be synthesized from CBD extracted from hemp using a strong acid and heat [51]. All phytocannabinoids undergo hepatic and extra-hepatic metabolism upon human consumption, and some of their metabolites retain significant affinity towards cannabinoid receptors.
Cannabis as a potential compound against various malignancies, legal aspects, advancement by exploiting nanotechnology and clinical trials
Published in Journal of Drug Targeting, 2022
Nazeer Hasan, Mohammad Imran, Afsana Sheikh, Suma Saad, Gaurav Chaudhary, Gaurav Kumar Jain, Prashant Kesharwani, Farhan J. Ahmad
Moreover, cannabinoids act on cannabinoid receptors present on the cell surface by imitating endogenous ligands, such as endocannabinoids -anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) discovered after the unearthing of CB1 and CB2 receptors. These endocannabinoids have the chemical structure of alkyl-amide are reproduced from the membrane lipids. Apart from cannabinoids, numerous other constituents were also elucidated, such as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) [19], cannabigerol [20,21], and cannabichromene [22–24]. Δ9-THC is the most potent constituent present in abundance in the cannabis plant; thus, majorly are employed in medical research [25]. It causes the development of intoxicant effects, generally associated with cannabis after the binding and activating CB1 receptor [26]. Cannabinoids do not show psychotropic activity due to less affinity towards CB1, and CB2 making it a neurological and anti-cancer drug. Contrarily, Δ9-THC, a psychotropic cannabinoid, possesses a high affinity towards both receptors, contributing to major biological events like those mediated by endocannabinoids. Any disruption in the expression of cannabinoid receptor or endocannabinoid levels or enzymes evidenced the presence of several diseases like inflammation, a neurodegenerative disorder, epilepsy, glaucoma, multiple sclerosis, and cancer [27–30]. Therefore, medical cannabis has been used to treat disease or improve symptoms [31].
In quest of a new therapeutic approach in COVID-19: the endocannabinoid system
Published in Drug Metabolism Reviews, 2021
Ondine Lucaciu, Ovidiu Aghiorghiesei, Nausica Bianca Petrescu, Ioana Codruta Mirica, Horea Rareș Ciprian Benea, Dragoș Apostu
Type of cannabinoids. There are three main types of cannabinoids: phytocannabinoids, endocannabinoids, and drugs containing either natural or synthetic cannabinoids (Apostu et al. 2019; Petrescu et al. 2020). The phytocannabinoids are obtained by decarboxylation of the cannabinoid acids within the plants and are represented by cannabigerol (CBG), cannabidivarin (CBGV), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabichromene (CBC), cannabidivarin (CBDV), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (Δ9-THCV), and cannabichromevarin (CBCV) (Apostu et al. 2019). Endocannabinoids are ligands of the cannabinoid receptors and are synthesized by specific enzymes (Apostu et al. 2019). The main endocannabinoids of the human body are N-arachidonoylethanolamide (anandamide or AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) (Apostu et al. 2019). Drugs containing natural cannabinoids are represented by Sativex™ or Epidiolex™, which contain cannabidiol and/or THC (Apostu et al. 2019). Synthetic cannabinoid drugs consist in cannabinoid agonists and are represented by Marinol™ (dronabinol), Syndros™ (dronabinol), or Cesamet™ (nabilone), (Apostu et al. 2019). By activating CB-1 or CB-2 receptors, cannabinoids modulate systems such as immune, cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, pulmonary, digestive, and central nervous system (Apostu et al. 2019).