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Torovirus
Published in Dongyou Liu, Handbook of Foodborne Diseases, 2018
Ziton Abdulrida Ighewish Al-Khafaji, Ghanim Aboud Al-Mola
In humans (especially immunocompromised individuals and children), torovirus has been implicated in nosocomially acquired gastroenteritis, with vomiting and bloody diarrhea being main clinical symptoms. There is a clear association between torovirus excretion and gastroenteritis in the pediatric population among immunocompromised hospitalized patients and in previously healthy patients [36].
Diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of coronavirus disease: a review
Published in Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy, 2022
Manoj Kumar Sarangi, Sasmita Padhi, Shrivardhan Dheeman, Santosh Kumar Karn, L. D. Patel, Dong Kee Yi, Sitansu Sekhar Nanda
Patent applications US20060039926 and US20060039926A1 have been filed for live attenuated coronavirus and torovirus vaccines, respectively. The viral genome vaccine encodes a p59 protein which is a mutagen specific to tyrosine residues. Viral proteins cause mutations in p59 and ORF2a proteins for the attenuation of MHV-A59; these attenuated viruses can induce immunity against SARS-CoV-2 [13]. The Y6398H mutation in the ORF1a/b polyprotein (p59/nsp14/ExoN) has been reported to completely attenuate the development of mouse coronavirus (MHV-A59) [137]. The BCG vaccine develops trained immunity against infections, and therefore might also help reduce the viral load in blood after exposure to SARS-CoV-2 through secondary immune responses, resulting in quick recovery. However, randomized-control clinical trials are underway to test the efficacy of these vaccines [138].
Emerging Human Coronavirus Infections (SARS, MERS, and COVID-19): Where They Are Leading Us
Published in International Reviews of Immunology, 2021
CoVs belong to the family of Coronaviridae (comprising of two subfamilies Coronavirinae and Torovirinae) belonging to the order Nidovirales (derived from the Latin word nidus, nest), which have positive sense non-segmented single stranded (ss) RNA as their genome [15]. The subfamily Coronavirinae can further be subdivided into four genera depending on their genetic and antigenic criteria, including Alphacoronavirus (αCoVs), Betacoronavirus (βCoVs), Deltacoronavirus (δCoVs), and Gammacoronavirus (γCoVs) [16]. αCoVs, include αCoV 1 (transmissible gastroenteritis virus, TGEV), porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), bat coronavirus 1, BtCoV 512, BtCoV HKU8, BtCoV-HKU2, human coronavirus HCoV-NL63 and HCoV-229E (responsible for human common cold). γCoVs include avian coronavirus and whale coronavirus SW1. δCoVs include coronavirus HKU11, HKU12, and HKU13. βCoVs are the most studied members of the subfamily Coronavirinae. The genus βCoV has 4 major lineages: Lineage A (includes HCoV-OC43 [also responsible for human common cold] and HCoV-HKU1, βCoV 1 [also called bovine coronavirus], murine coronavirus [mouse hepatitis virus, MHV]), Lineage B (includes severe acute respiratory syndrome-related SARS-CoV and various species found in Bats), Lineage C (includes Tylonycteris bat coronavirus HKU4 (BtCoV-HKU4), Pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5 (BtCoV-HKU5), and the MERS-CoV, which is closely related to the Tylonycteris bat coronavirus HKU4 and Pipistrellus bat coronavirus HKU5), and Lineage D (includes Rousettus bat coronavirus HKU9 (BtCoV-HKU9), which has only been found in bats) [10,16–19]. On the other hand, the subfamily, Torovirinae contains two genera called Torovirus and Bafinivirus. The viruses of the Coronaviridae family are roughly spherical, enveloped, and have fringe large bulbous surface projections. All CoVs show similarities in their genome organization and expression. For example, they have 16 nonstructural proteins (Nsp1 to Nsp16), encoded by open reading frame (ORF) 1a/b at the 5′ end, and structural proteins spike (S), envelope (E), membrane (M), and nucleocapsid (N) encoded by other ORFs at the 3′ end [20]. I will mainly focus here on MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV, and COVID-19 in terms of their primary reservoir hosts (bats), infection pathogenesis, clinical symptoms, associated immune response, and current and future therapeutic approaches.