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Biology of Coronaviruses and Predicted Origin of SARS-CoV-2
Published in Debmalya Barh, Kenneth Lundstrom, COVID-19, 2022
Giorgio Palù, Alberto Reale, Nicolas G. Bazan, Pritam Kumar Panda, Vladimir N. Uversky, Murat Seyran, Alaa A. A. Aljabali, Samendra P. Sherchan, Gajendra Kumar Azad, Wagner Baetas-da-Cruz, Parise Adadi, Murtaza M. Tambuwala, Bruce D. Uhal, Kazuo Takayama, Ángel Serrano-Aroca, Tarek Mohamed Abd El-Aziz, Adam M. Brufsky, Kenneth Lundstrom
Following the initial attachment, the S protein is cleaved by cathepsin or another protease. Then fusion takes place in endosomes or at the plasma membrane, and the viral RNA is released into the cytoplasm. Expression of non-structural proteins (NSPs) generates the replicase-transcriptase complex, and initiates synthesis of genomic and subgenomic RNA and translation of structural and accessory proteins. Specifically, while NSPs are transcribed directly from the genomic RNA, transcription of all other viral proteins is mediated by nested, subgenomic RNAs located at the 3′ end. This is a shared feature of all viruses of the Nidovirales order (from Latin nidus, “nest”). The structural proteins are transported to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and further to the ER-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC), where the RNA is enwrapped by the N protein, and assembled into viral particles with S, E, and M proteins. Mature virions are transported to the plasma membrane in vesicles and released by exocytosis.
Order Nidovirales
Published in Paul Pumpens, Peter Pushko, Philippe Le Mercier, Virus-Like Particles, 2022
Paul Pumpens, Peter Pushko, Philippe Le Mercier
The Nidovirales is a huge and deeply structured order of the enveloped, positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses of widely different architecture that have not experienced significant consideration from the VLP nanotechnologies thus far, because of their remarkable size and complexity. This great order currently involves 8 suborders, 14 families, 25 subfamilies, 39 genera, 65 subgenera, and 109 species. According to the modern taxonomy (ICTV 2020), the order Nidovirales is one of the three orders belonging to the class Pisoniviricetes, together with the huge Picornavirales order (described in the neighboring Chapter 27) and the smaller Sobelivirales order, presented in Chapter 28. The Pisoniviricetes class is belonging to the Pisuviricota phylum from the kingdom Orthornavirae, realm Riboviria (ICTV 2020).
Forecasting the Damage Caused by COVID-19 Using Time Series Analysis and Study of the Consequence of Preventive Measures for Spread Control
Published in Ram Shringar Raw, Vishal Jain, Sanjoy Das, Meenakshi Sharma, Pandemic Detection and Analysis Through Smart Computing Technologies, 2022
Basudeba Behera, Ujjwal Gupta, Sagar Rai
The novel coronavirus (nCoV) or COVID-19 has originated from the Hubei province in China and has spread rapidly around the globe. The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared the disease as a pandemic. As there is no vaccine present for the disease, various countries have resorted to different means for control of the spread. As of 2nd April 2020, there are around 1,015,065 confirmed cases of the nCoV or COVID-19 in the world. Coronaviruses are enveloped positive-sense, non-segmented RNA viruses belonging to the Coronaviridae family and the Nidovirales order and widely distributed in humans and other mammals [2]. The virus causes a range of symptoms ranging from fever, difficulty in breathing, dry cough, fatigue, and bilateral lung infiltration in severe cases. Some of the patients showed non-respiratory symptoms including nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting. Most of the patients are directly or indirectly connected to the people visiting the live animal market in Huanan. The Chinese health authority initially suggested that the patients had tested negative for the earlier known viruses and bacteria but tested positive for the nCoV [3]. In contrast to the earlier studies, the nCoV spreads from human to human as found in Ref. [3]. During the pandemic period in which the cases of the disease are rising rapidly each day, forecasting is of utmost importance for tackling the disease with limited resources [1].
Enteroviruses and coronaviruses: similarities and therapeutic targets
Published in Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets, 2021
Varpu Marjomäki, Kerttu Kalander, Maarit Hellman, Perttu Permi
Coronaviruses, belonging to the order of Nidovirales, circulate among humans causing common cold, reminiscent of rhinovirus infections. HCoV-229E and HCoV-OC43 cause typically seasonal infections [27]. However, from time to time, coronaviruses cause epidemic outbreaks with severe respiratory symptoms and high mortality [16,28]. The first two regional epidemics were caused by SARS-CoV (Severe acute respiratory syndrome) in China and 28 other countries, e.g., Canada, Singapore, and Vietnam between 2002 and 2003, and by MERS-CoV (Middle east respiratory syndrome), mostly in the Arab Peninsula and South Korea between 2012 and 20, but the epidemic still continues at a low pace. In 2019, in Wuhan, China, a novel COVID-19 coronavirus, also called SARS-CoV-2, eventually caused a pandemic which, by spring 2021 has already infected 124.2 million people and killed over 2.73 million people [29]. While SARS-CoV in 2003 was causing infection in the lower respiratory system, SARS-CoV-2 infection is also causing virus spread also from the upper respiratory, nasopharyngeal area, possibly explaining the more efficient spread and worldwide pandemic.
The broad-spectrum antiviral recommendations for drug discovery against COVID-19
Published in Drug Metabolism Reviews, 2020
Abu Hazafa, Khalil ur-Rahman, Ikram-ul- Haq, Nazish Jahan, Muhammad Mumtaz, Muhammad Farman, Huma Naeem, Faheem Abbas, Muhammad Naeem, Sania Sadiqa, Saira Bano
Coronaviruses are recognized as an enveloped virus with non-segmented positive-sense RNA (+RNA; ∼30 KB) that belong to the Coronaviridae and Nidovirales family and order, respectively. During the past few decades, the two beta-coronaviruses including Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) got the special attention because of their lethal respiratory syndromes and high mortality rates of about 10 and 36% for SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV respectively in animals as well as human (Huang et al. 2020; Li and Liu 2020). MERS-CoV was initially reported in Saudi Arabia in June 2012, in a patient with acute pneumonia and kidney failure (Rabaan et al. 2017; Alfaraj et al. 2019). It was reported in the dromedary camel, which revealed that these camels have a high prevalence of MERS-CoV-antibodies in some regions of Africa and Saudi Arabia. The molecular presentation of MERS-CoV revealed that it is closely related to SARS-CoV, but according to phylogenetic analysis, it has a close relationship with bat isolated coronavirus than SARS-CoV, which exposed that it was isolated from the bat (Vespertilionidae) before transfer into human (Cui et al. 2019). Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), renal failure, and septic shock are the possible clinical manifestations associated with coronaviruses (Rahman 2018; Chen et al. 2020).
Emerging Human Coronavirus Infections (SARS, MERS, and COVID-19): Where They Are Leading Us
Published in International Reviews of Immunology, 2021
The viruses of Nidovirales order synthesize a 3′ co-terminal nested set of subgenomic mRNA during infection. Their virion (appears like a crown, Latin Corona) size varies from 27 to 32 kbp, which is the largest genome of all the known RNA viruses, and induces infection when introduced in the permissible cells. The infectivity of CoV introduced in the cells increases in the presence of the source of nucleocapsid (N) protein because the CoV genome encodes four major structural proteins, including the spike (S) protein, N protein (harbors two independent RNA binding domains, which allow optimal loading of the genomic viral RNA in the ribonucleoprotein complex), membrane (M) protein, and the envelope (E) protein, which are required to comprise the complete virion [178–181]. The S protein of CoVs is the largest structural protein with 1200 to 1400 AAs, which are often glycosylated as 21-35N-terminal glycosylation sites present in each S monomer [182]. The details of S protein structure and mechanism of interaction with the host cell receptor have been described somewhere else [182–184]. The N proteins of the CoV localize to the cytoplasm and nucleolus (the ribosome synthesis cite and also sequesters cell cycle regulatory complexes) of the infected host cells. The cells transfected with the plasmids expressing N protein, which may delay the cell cycle in interphase, cause the maximum translation of the viral mRNA [185,186]. The N protein of the virus interacts with fibrillarin and the nucleolin of the nucleolus to get in [185]. Also, M and E structural proteins of CoVs play crucial role in the efficient assembly, trafficking, and release of the virion [187].