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Global Urban Health
Published in Igor Vojnovic, Amber L. Pearson, Gershim Asiki, Geoffrey DeVerteuil, Adriana Allen, Handbook of Global Urban Health, 2019
Igor Vojnovic, Amber L. Pearson, Gershim Asiki, Geoffrey DeVerteuil, Adriana Allen
Poor access to water and sanitation is widely acknowledged as a significant driver for many preventable diseases, including water-based diseases, water-washed diseases, waterborne diseases, water-dispersed infections, and water-related vector-borne diseases (Baeza et al. 2018). Still, the urban poor continue to rely on various forms of unimproved sanitation across most cities in sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 1.8). A comprehensive study conducted in 31 major cities in the region found that the prevalence of open defecation is, on average, increasing (Hopewell and Graham 2014).
Hepatitis E Virus
Published in Dongyou Liu, Handbook of Foodborne Diseases, 2018
Kavita Lole, Prudhvi Lal Bhukya, Bangari Haldipur
Contamination of water sources with inadequately treated sewage during the wet season and heavy floods or due to leaky pipelines of water supplies and sewage has been associated with HEV epidemics.4,158–161 Seroprevalence of anti-HEV in sewage workers indicates occupational risk of hepatitis E transmission in this group.161,162 Inadequate sewage treatment plays an important role in maintaining HEV endemicity in developing countries. Open defecation is the main reason for the contamination of water from rivers, ponds, unprotected wells, and other drinking streams normally and in rainy season during runoff.106,163 The 1978–1979 hepatitis E outbreak in Kashmir Valley, India, was due to fecal pollution of running water and water bodies. This massive outbreak affected about 1,937,000 individuals, with 53,307 jaundice cases and nearly 1,700 deaths.126,164 Occasionally, piped water can be contaminated with HEV. When pipelines laid along with sewage drains are damaged, there are chances of contamination of piped water with sewage water, which can result in waterborne HEV infection. Such epidemics have been reported from Indian cities like Hyderabad, Saharanpur, and Ahmadabad and from North India.6,125,160,165–167
Water for hygiene *
Published in Jamie Bartram, Rachel Baum, Peter A. Coclanis, David M. Gute, David Kay, Stéphanie McFadyen, Katherine Pond, William Robertson, Michael J. Rouse, Routledge Handbook of Water and Health, 2015
Aidan A. Cronin, Therese Dooley
Table 22.2 provides a structural outline of how various strategies may be brought together for a WASH programme. While the moral norm may exist it may be reinforced by religious leaders and trusted personalities in the communities, while the authorities may also support it by banning practices like open defecation with a viable alternative in place. For social norms the starting point may be one that necessitates community dialogue around the values that the community lives to and what the vision is that they aspire to. This may be focused on WASH as an entry point or it may be that deeper human rights discussions are required. Transforming sanitation behaviour, in particular through a rushed initiative, has proven very often to be not sustainable as it takes time to build trust around these new concepts in the community (Dyalchand et al., 2011). Such approaches, based on social norms theory, have progressed sanitation and hygiene uptake globally through community-led total sanitation (CLTS; Kar and Chambers, 2008) or community approaches to total sanitation (CATS; UNICEF, 2010, 2014a). These approaches emphasize the sustainable use of safe, affordable, user-friendly sanitation facilities and promote HWWS via a solid process and trust and rely on community mobilization and behaviour change to improve sanitation and integrate hygiene practices. This process must be inclusive of the entire community if all are to be reached and behaviours sustained. This is also essential if impact is to lead to improved gender and equitable results.
The impact of shared sanitation facilities on diarrheal diseases with and without an environmental reservoir: a modeling study
Published in Pathogens and Global Health, 2018
Matthew R. Just, Stephen W. Carden, Sheng Li, Kelly K. Baker, Manoj Gambhir, Isaac Chun-Hai Fung
The risks versus benefits of shared latrines remain unclear. On the one hand, reduced practice of open defecation will reduce widespread contamination of the environment and reduce risk of diarrhea at the community level. On the other hand, sharing a latrine with other users may increase exposure to feces of other users and increase exposure to a less hygienic latrine environment that increases the risk of infection via fomites. Additionally, there are many species of pathogens that cause diarrheal diseases. These pathogens may vary in how they survive and decay in the environment and how they were transported in the environment. Some spread primarily through environmental routes and with environmental reservoirs (such as contaminated water sources). Others are primarily transmitted between humans via close contacts and fomites without any environment reservoir. Pathogen-specific transmission ecologies may also contribute to observations of whether shared latrines are safe or unsafe.
High burden of soil-transmitted helminth infections, schistosomiasis, undernutrition, and poor sanitation in two Typhoon Haiyan-stricken provinces in Eastern Philippines
Published in Pathogens and Global Health, 2021
Vicente Belizario, John Paul Caesar Robles Delos Trinos, Olivia Sison, Esther Miranda, Victorio Molina, Agnes Cuayzon, Maria Epifania Isiderio, Rodel Delgado
The validated sanitary toilet coverage varied from the reported coverage in eight barangays, seven of which were non-ZOD barangays. Monitoring is a challenge in improving sanitation [57], particularly in non-ZOD barangays where less attention is given to sanitation. There were, likewise, ZOD barangays which reported low sanitary toilet coverage. This may be explained by reversion to open defecation, which have been documented in several Asia-Pacific countries[57]. Another factor may be Typhoon Haiyan which may have damaged sanitation infrastructure. A standard and limited validation of sanitary toilet coverage should be institutionalized to improve monitoring of sanitary toilet coverage.
Progress in the overall understanding of typhoid fever: implications for vaccine development
Published in Expert Review of Vaccines, 2020
Peter J O’Reilly, Dikshya Pant, Mila Shakya, Buddha Basnyat, Andrew J Pollard
In sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, nine out of ten of the 785 million people still used unimproved sources of water or surface water in 2017. Open defecation was practiced by 18% of the rural population and 1% of the urban population in these regions. Thirty nine countries, mostly from sub-Saharan Africa have recorded an increase in open defecation, accounting for a total of 49 million people. Two billion people, mostly from sub-Saharan Africa and Asia lacked access to basic sanitation services in 2017. Eighteen percent of the global population (1.4 billion people) had no handwashing facilities at all [24].