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Insecticides
Published in Frank A. Barile, Barile’s Clinical Toxicology, 2019
OC compounds have applications as insecticides in agriculture and as industrial and commercial pesticides, especially in mosquito abatement and red fire ant control. Because of their high lipid solubility, high carcinogenic potency, and potential for low-level accumulation with chronic exposure, some of these agents are no longer produced in the United States (endrin, aldrin, and dieldrin). DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane; Table 28.3, Figure 28.3) was developed during World War II for the protection of armed forces against disease-carrying insects and is the best known of the chlorinated compounds. The persistence of DDT in the environment and the contribution of the insecticide to reduction of wildlife populations prompted the reevaluation of the utility of DDT and related chlorinated hydrocarbons. Heavy use of DDT in the United States before 1966 was probably responsible for a previously undetected epidemic of premature births. Epidemiological studies on humans since then have been suggestive of human reproductive toxicity of DDT. The pesticide is still widely used and highly effective in areas where mosquito-borne malaria is a major public health problem.
Agrochemicals: A Brief Overview
Published in Dongyou Liu, Handbook of Foodborne Diseases, 2018
Other organochlorines. Several other organochlorine insecticides were introduced in the late 1940s to early 1950s, and they have experienced wide use before being banned in most countries due to their persistence and environmental and human health effects. Lindane is the γ-isomer of benzene hexachloride, and remains available as a scabicide and pediculocide in lotions and shampoos, as a secondary line of treatment after pyrethroids, but has been banned from agricultural use. The primary use of chlordane was for termite control, while other compounds (e.g., dieldrin, heptachlor, and endrin) were primarily used in agriculture. All of these compounds have moderate to high acute oral toxicity; however, in contrast to DDT, they are readily absorbed through the skin. The primary target for their toxicity is the CNS, and convulsions are a prominent aspect of poisoning. These are due to the ability of these compounds to interfere with GABA-mediated neurotransmission by binding to the chloride channel, similarly to type II pyrethroids (82). These organochlorine compounds are slowly metabolized, have a tendency to bioaccumulate in adipose tissue, and are excreted in milk. Many are also inducers of microsomal biotransformation enzymes and cause liver enlargement upon chronic exposure (100). Most of these insecticides were banned in the United States at the same time as DDT; for example, aldrin and dieldrin were banned in 1975, toxaphene in 1982, and chlordane in 1988.
Pesticides and Chronic Diseases
Published in William J. Rea, Kalpana D. Patel, Reversibility of Chronic Disease and Hypersensitivity, Volume 4, 2017
William J. Rea, Kalpana D. Patel
Aldrin (octalene): Aldrin (Figure 7.3) is a chlorinated naphthalene derivative that has been used as an insecticide since 1950. It is related to dieldrin and endrin and has been banned in some countries due to its persistence in the environment and potential for chronic toxicity. Aldrin is metabolized to dieldrin, which is its epoxide form. Aldrin is slowly eliminated from the body, as unknown hydrophilic metabolites in feces and a little in urine. Aldrin produces CNS stimulation with excitation characterized by nausea, dizziness, headaches, involuntary movements, convulsions, and loss of consciousness.
Monitoring and health risk assessment of organochlorine pesticides in Karun River and drinking water Ahvaz city, South West of Iran
Published in Toxin Reviews, 2022
Sahand Jorfi, Ali Poormohammadi, Elham Maraghi, Halime Almasi
The results of measurements of the studied OCPs in the chlorination unit of WTP No.1, indicated that the concentrations of chlordane and lindane were below the maximum permissible limit in all seasons. Based on Figure 3, the concentrations of the studied OCPs, were lower than the recommended standard values. It should be noted that there is no standard value for dieldrin Maximum contaminated level goal (MCLG) = zero; USEPA 2003). Aldrin was not detected in December, January, and February, but in other months its concentration was higher than the standard limits. Dieldrin concentration was higher than the maximum permissible limit in September, November, and December. Endrin concentration was higher than the maximum permissible level in August, September, October, November, and December, and it was not detected in January and February. Also, DDT levels in August, September, and December were lower than allowable levels, and was not detected in January and February.
Pyrethroid based pesticides – chemical and biological aspects
Published in Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 2021
Anandha Rao Ravula, Suresh Yenugu
The major breakthrough in the development of pesticides started during World War II with the production of environmentally persistent first-generation synthetic pesticides namely, the organochlorines; and prominent among them were aldrin and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). The second-generation organophosphate pesticides such as malathion were discovered between 1950 and 1955 followed by triazine weedicides during 1955–1960 and their usage reached its peak by 1961. Owing to the public attention toward excessive usage of pesticides and the health hazards elegantly described in the famous book “Silent Spring”, the use of pesticides decreased drastically by 1962 (Carson 1962). Following this, a new method of integrated pest management (IPM) came into existence in which biological predators or parasites were used to control pests. Albeit the population of pests reduced significantly, IPM methods did not display substantial effect akin to chemical pesticides. During 1970–1980s, pyrethroids, sulfonylureas, synthetic fungicides and other chemical pesticides were introduced. DDT was completely banned in USA followed by restrictions on usage of endosulfan, dieldrin and lindane in early 1970s. An international treaty derived at Stockholm Convention held in 2001 to which 179 nations were signatories, resolved to completely ban the use of twelve persistent organic pollutants including DDT (SCPOP 2001). On the same lines, European Union (EU) supported to ban on the use of nicotinoids in 2013.
Veterinary utility of dried blood spots for analysis of toxic chlorinated hydrocarbons
Published in Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods, 2018
Andreas F. Lehner, Margaret Johnson, John Buchweitz
With regards to the environment, organochlorine pesticides such as aldrin, dieldrin, DDT and its derivatives (4,4′-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane [4,4′-DDD] and 4,4′-DDE), lindane, hexachlorobenzene and PCBs are of great concern due to their highly bioaccumulative properties and toxicities (Chopra et al. 2011). These chemicals persist in nature, biomagnify in the food web, and impose toxic effects in marine and other organisms (El-Shahawi et al. 2010). As of 2011, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) has endeavored to restrict and eliminate highly dangerous, long-lasting chemicals from the environment, and of 21 chemicals listed by the agency, 14 are chlorinated pesticides (aldrin, chlordane, chlordecone, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, lindane and its alpha- and beta-isomers, mirex, pentachlorobenzene and toxaphene), with the remainder including PCBs, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans, brominated diphenyl ethers, perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctane sulfonyl fluoride (PFOS-F) (Stockholm Convention Factsheet 2011).