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Renal Disease; Fluid and Electrolyte Disorders
Published in John S. Axford, Chris A. O'Callaghan, Medicine for Finals and Beyond, 2023
There are two kidneys behind the peritoneum at the back of the upper abdomen. The right kidney lies below the liver and so is lower than the left kidney. The outer layer of the kidney is the renal cortex and the inner layer is the renal medulla (Figure 8.1). During development, kidneys form in the pelvis and move upwards. Sometimes one or both kidneys can remain in the pelvis. If both remain in the pelvis, they may fuse together to form a horseshoe kidney.
Introduction: Epilepsy
Published in Candace M. Kent, David M. Chan, Analysis of a Model for Epilepsy, 2022
Candace M. Kent, David M. Chan
The term semiology refers to the clinical manifestations, in terms of signs (objective features) and symptoms (subjective features), that are peculiar to seizures originating from a particular region of the brain. The terms anterior, posterior, lateral, and medial refer to the front, back, side, and middle, respectively, of the brain. The human brain is divided into two halves, the left cerebral hemisphere and the right cerebral hemisphere. Each hemisphere is, in turn, divided into four lobes: the frontal lobe, located anteriorly; the occipital lobe, located posteriorly; the parietal lobe, located between the frontal and occipital lobes; and the temporal lobe, located medially and laterally. The cortical tissue or cortex of the brain is the “gray matter” covering both cerebral hemispheres, and is gray because it contains the cell bodies of neurons. The neocortex makes up most of the cortex and consists of six layers of different types of neurons [42].
Motor Function and ControlDescending Tracts
Published in Peter Kam, Ian Power, Michael J. Cousins, Philip J. Siddal, Principles of Physiology for the Anaesthetist, 2020
Peter Kam, Ian Power, Michael J. Cousins, Philip J. Siddal
The motor cortex generates and controls motor commands, which are transmitted to the descending pyramidal and extrapyramidal tracts. The cerebral cortex consists of three reciprocally interconnected areas: primary motor cortex, supplementary motor cortex and premotor cortex (Figure 9.1). The primary motor cortex (Brodmann's area 4), located in the precentral sulcus, has a topographical representation of the body (motor homunculus) with the head, face and hands represented laterally and the legs and feet medially. The more complex the movement of a particular part of the body, the more motor cortex is devoted to it. The tongue, lips and hands have a much greater representation because of the complexity of their motor activity. The primary motor cortex is responsible for the control of voluntary movements.
Acute improvement in the attention network with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in Parkinson’s disease
Published in Disability and Rehabilitation, 2022
Wei Wei, Xingyang Yi, Zexiu Wu, Jianghai Ruan, Hua Luo, Xiaodong Duan
In our study, regarding the ANT, although the RT on almost every subtask was reduced, the improvements in the three attention networks by rTMS were not identical. The reduction in RT under the incongruent condition was greater than that under the congruent condition. Therefore, the RTs based on the executive control network were significantly reduced. The ANT is a useful test for evaluating the executive control network by assessing elapsed time differences between tasks involving congruent and incongruent targets [70]. The executive control network is related to addressing conflict produced by different stimuli [5]. This network is impaired in PD probably because the executive control network is modulated by dopamine [71], and there is abnormal activation in frontoparietal and dorsal attention networks during executive challenges in PD [14]. The prefrontal cortex prompts more effective responses to conflicting stimuli and coordinates the executive control network [72]. The prefrontal cortex is a common anatomical region shared by the executive control network and executive functions. However, although rTMS showed a selective effect on executive functions as assessed by the neuropsychological tests mentioned above, the ANT data showed definite effects of rTMS on the executive control network.
Therapeutic role of Azadirachta indica leaves ethanolic extract against diabetic nephropathy in rats neonatally induced by streptozotocin
Published in Ultrastructural Pathology, 2021
Abd El-Fattah B. M. El-Beltagy, Amira M.B. Saleh, Amany Attaallah , Reham A. Gahnem
The renal sections from control (Figure 2A&A1) and neem supplemented (Figure 2B&B1) rats appeared with normal histological architecture whereas it is differentiated into outer cortex and inner medulla. The renal cortex displayed well-organized renal corpuscles and tubules. The renal corpuscle consists of glomerulus that is surrounded by Bowman’s space and intact Bowman’s capsule that lined with simple squamous epithelium. The renal tubules represented by proximal tubules (PT), distal tubules (DT) and collecting ducts (CD). The PT is characterized by its star-shaped lumen that is lined with brush bordered cubical epithelium. Moreover, the DT has relatively rounded lumen that lined by cubical epithelium with little microvilli. The CD lined with short cubical epithelium and has a relatively wider lumen than the PT and DT. The renal medulla displayed well-organized collecting ducts and Henel,s loops.
Impact of copper oxide nanoparticles on the cerebral cortex of adult male albino rats and the potential protective role of crocin
Published in Ultrastructural Pathology, 2021
Sarah Mohamed Mowafy, Abdelmonem Awad Hegazy, Dalia A. Mandour, Samaa Salah Abd El-Fatah
Groups I, II and III exhibited nearly identical normal histological structures in H&E-stained and ultrathin sections. On light microscopic examination, the cerebellar cortex was divided into many folia by several sulci. Each folium had a core of the white matter and trilaminar cortex. The cortex consisted of three layers: outer molecular layer, middle Purkinje layer, and inner granular layer (Figure 1). The outer molecular layer was composed of superficial stellate cells, deep basket cells, and several nerve fibers. The inner granular layer had aggregation of small deeply stained granule cells with pale noncellular areas in between cells, called the cerebellar islands. The Purkinje layer was formed by a single layer of Purkinje cells arranged in a row between the granular and molecular layers. The Purkinje cells were pyriform in shape with large clear vesicular nuclei and basophilic cytoplasm. The dendrites of the Purkinje cells were extending up into the molecular layer. These cells were surrounded by pale stained nuclei of Bergmann cells (Figure 2).