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Infrared Spectroscopy
Published in Adorjan Aszalos, Modern Analysis of Antibiotics, 2020
There are, therefore, 3N - 6 (nonlinear) or 3N - 5 (linear) internal degrees of freedom for the vibrational motion of the molecule. In the simplest model the force holding the molecule together is proportional to the displacement of the atoms from their equilibrium position (Hooke’s law). This is the harmonic oscillator model. For this model the relationship between the frequency of vibration v, force constant k, and masses m1 and m2 of diatomic molecules can be described (see Colthup et al. [5] and Barrow [16]) by or where is the reduced mass.
Writing Chemical Equations
Published in Patrick E. McMahon, Rosemary F. McMahon, Bohdan B. Khomtchouk, Survival Guide to General Chemistry, 2019
Patrick E. McMahon, Rosemary F. McMahon, Bohdan B. Khomtchouk
Write the correct formulas for all products and reactants; reactants are written to the left of the arrow; products are written to the right. Compound formulas are determined from names or other descriptions.Formulas for elements are the symbol for the element, with the following general exception. Some elements come as diatomic molecules: two atoms of the same element per one molecule. These elements are H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, and are written in their diatomic molecule form. Certain other elements may sometimes appear as multi-atom such as S8.
The Physical World
Published in David E. H. Jones, Why Are We Conscious?, 2017
Each atom has a tiny central ‘nucleus’ which is a tiny assembly of protons and neutrons, like ‘a fly in a cathedral’. It accounts for almost all the weight of the atom, but almost none of its size. Around the tiny nucleus fly orbiting electrons, enough to make the atom as a whole electrically neutral. Appendix C discusses the strange quantum-mechanical laws which seem to govern them; it makes sense to regard the electrons as shells of wavelike ‘electron density’. Accordingly, an atom does not have a sharp edge; it just fades away. The best we can do is to say that it is about 10−10 m across. One atom can combine chemically with another; the two can form a clump or diatomic molecule by an interaction of their outer electron-shells. Further atoms can then add to the clump; many different sorts of such multi-atom ‘chemical molecules’ are known. Each forms a specific material, such as salt or water. A living object (a virus or a cell, say) is a little structure assembled from many chemical materials. Each part of such a structure probably contains trillions of chemical molecules.
Quantum technology a tool for sequencing of the ratio DSS/DNA modifications for the development of new DNA-binding proteins
Published in Egyptian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 2022
Adamu Yunusa Ugya, Kamel Meguellati
Quantum technology is a new field of physics and engineering that is based on quantum physics principles. Quantum computing, quantum sensors, quantum cryptography, quantum simulation, quantum metrology, and quantum imaging are all examples of quantum technologies that use quantum mechanics properties, particularly quantum entanglement, quantum superposition, and quantum tunneling [85]. Any science concerned with systems that display noticeable quantum-mechanical effects, where waves have particle qualities and particles behave like waves, is referred to as quantum physics. Quantum mechanics has applications in both explaining natural events and developing technology that rely on quantum effects, such as integrated circuits and lasers [86]. Quantum mechanics is also crucial for understanding how covalent bonds connect individual atoms to form molecules. Quantum chemistry is the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry. Quantum mechanics may also demonstrate which molecules are energetically favorable to which others and the magnitudes of the energy involved in ionic and covalent bonding processes [86]. The algebraic determination of the hydrogen spectrum by [87] and the treatment of diatomic molecules by [88] were the earliest applications of quantum mechanics to physical systems. Modern technology operates on a scale where quantum effects are significant in many ways. Quantum chemistry, quantum optics, quantum computing, superconducting magnets, light-emitting diodes, the optical amplifier and laser, the transistor and semiconductors such as the microprocessor, and medical and research imaging such as magnetic resonance imaging and electron microscopy are all important applications of quantum theory. Many biological and physical phenomena, most notably the macromolecule DNA, have explanations based on the nature of chemical bonds. Multiple governments have established quantum technology exploration programs since 2010, including the UK National Quantum Technologies Programme [89], which created four quantum ‘hubs’, the Singapore Center for Quantum Technologies, and QuTech, a Dutch center to develop a topological quantum computer [90]. The European Union launched the Quantum Technology Flagship in 2016, a €1 billion, ten-year megaproject comparable to the European Future and Emerging Technologies Flagship initiatives. The National Quantum Initiative Act, passed in December 2018, allocates a $1 billion annual budget for quantum research in the United States. Large corporations have made multiple investments in quantum technology in the private sector. Google’s collaboration with the John Martinis group at UCSB, various relationships with D-wave Systems, a Canadian quantum computing business, and investment by many UK corporations in the UK quantum technologies initiative are just a few examples [91].