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Community and environment as determinants of health
Published in Ben Y.F. Fong, Martin C.S. Wong, The Routledge Handbook of Public Health and the Community, 2021
Thomas Man-chi Dao, Bean S.N. Fu
Over the past 100 years, the average Earth surface temperature is in a rising trend (Rohde et al., 2013). These observations are described as global warming, and the postulated attributable cause is due to the increase in emission of greenhouse gases from industrial activities, including carbon dioxide, nitric oxides and ozone. Global warming can cause significantly harmful effects on human health, notably an increase in vector-borne diseases, heat waves and extreme weathers like drought and hurricanes. Vector-borne diseases are often transmitted by arthropods like mosquitoes and ticks. Mosquitoes tend to breed faster in a warmer environment with more precipitations. The mosquito-borne diseases like malaria, dengue fever and Japanese encephalitis are found mostly in tropical and subtropical regions, often compounded with poor water sanitation.
Chikungunya virus and Japanese encephalitis virus
Published in Avindra Nath, Joseph R. Berger, Clinical Neurovirology, 2020
Japanese encephalitis is a preventable disease by vaccination. Indeed, concerted vaccination efforts in endemic countries has resulted in significant reduction in infection and therefore morbidity and mortality, but population coverage is far from complete, and vector control remains an important consideration in disease prevention. Most endemic countries in Asia use a live attenuated virus vaccine. This is given at age eight months initially, and a booster is given at the age of two. Additional boosters between the ages of six and seven are administered in some regions. In Europe, Australia, and the United States, a Vero cell-derived, inactivated virus vaccine is widely used. This vaccine is only available for those aged eighteen or greater, however, leaving children potentially vulnerable. In the United States, the mouse brain-derived vaccine that has been replaced by the Vero cell-derived vaccine remains available for children while studies on the safety of the latter are underway.
Mosquitoes
Published in Gail Miriam Moraru, Jerome Goddard, The Goddard Guide to Arthropods of Medical Importance, Seventh Edition, 2019
Gail Miriam Moraru, Jerome Goddard
Japanese Encephalitis. Japanese encephalitis (JE) does not occur in the United States, but it is the principal cause of epidemic viral encephalitis in the world, with approximately 70,000 clinical cases each year and 10,000 deaths.69–71 Returning U.S. travelers from Asia are sometimes infected with the virus.72 JE epidemics have, at times, been widespread and severe. In 1924, there were 6125 cases with 3797 deaths.73 JE occurs in Asia, roughly in a triangle from Pakistan to Indonesia, north to about Siberia (Figure 25.27). The JE virus is highly virulent. Approximately 25% of the cases are rapidly fatal, 50% lead to neuropsychiatric sequelae, and only 25% fully recover. In temperate zones, JE has a summer–fall distribution, but in the tropics no seasonal peak is apparent. There are several mosquito vectors of JE, but probably the most important is Culex tritaeniorhynchus, a rice-field-breeding species. Hogs may serve as amplifying reservoirs for JE.74
Analysis of entomological indices for transmission of Japanese encephalitis in Malkangiri district, Odisha State, east central India during 2015–2019
Published in Pathogens and Global Health, 2023
Sonia Thankachy, Smrutidhara Dash, Muthukumaravel Subramanian, Sankari Thirumal, Vijayakumar Balakrishnan, Sudhansu Sekhar Sahu
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a significant public health problem, which affects predominantly poor and vulnerable populations in rural areas of different states of India with limited health-care facilities [1]. The JE virus is transmitted in an enzootic cycle between pigs, birds and mosquitoes, where pigs act as amplifying host, birds as reservoir host, mosquitoes as vector and human as the dead-end host [2]. Three subgroups of Culex vishnui, which consists of Cx. vishnui, Cx. tritaeniorhynchus and Cx. pseudovishnui are documented as the key vectors of JE in the country [3]. To date, studies conducted in many parts of the country have reported isolation of JEV from 17 mosquito species, i.e. 10 species of Culex (Cx. vishnui, Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, Cx. gelidus, Cx. bitaeniorhynchus, Cx. psedovishnui, Cx. whitmorei, Cx. fuscocephalus, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. epidesmus, Cx. infula), 3 species of Anopheles (Anopheles subpictus, An. peditaeniatus, An. barbirostris), 3 species of Mansonioides (Mansonia indiana, Ma. annulifera, Ma. uniformis) and 1 species of Armegeres (Armegeres subalbatus) [4]. The major JE affected States during the last five years (2015–2019) include Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Haryana, Bihar, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Manipur, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Tripura, and Assam [5].
Community engagement to control dengue and other vector-borne diseases in Alappuzha municipality, Kerala, India
Published in Pathogens and Global Health, 2021
Retheesh Babu Gopalan, Bontha Veerraju Babu, Attayoor Purushothaman Sugunan, Anju Murali, Mohammed Shafi Ma, Rathinam Balasubramanian, Sairu Philip
Two wards were selected for intervention based on the number of confirmed Japanese encephalitis cases in 2013. Out of 52 municipal wards in Alappuzha municipality, 12 municipal wards reported confirmed cases of Japanese encephalitis. The areas were selected based on the history of Japanese encephalitis and other VBDs like dengue and chikungunya, and Aedes density. Pazhaveedu ward covers an area of 0.44 square kilometers and has a population of 3,616. The ward has several natural canals and abandoned rice paddies, rivulets, canals, ponds, estuaries, and rice paddies on its border. Vadackal ward covers an area of 0.72 square kilometers and has a population of 4,632. Vadappozhi, an estuarine ecosystem that connects the Arabian Sea to the canals of Alappuzha, is in Vadackal ward. Fishing is the predominant livelihood activity.
Entomological factors in relation to the occurrence of Japanese encephalitis in Malkangiri district, Odisha State, India
Published in Pathogens and Global Health, 2019
Sonia Thankachy, Smrutidhara Dash, Sudhansu Sekhar Sahu
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is one of the key forms of viral encephalitis, mostly prevalent in southern and eastern Asia[1] and transmitted to human beings by mosquitoes [2,3]. In India, the first endemic case of Japanese encephalitis was identified in the state of Tamil Nadu in 1955 [4]. From 1955 to 1966, about 65 JE cases were reported in South India [4]. Since 1973, epidemics of JE were reported from different parts of India, predominantly in West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Haryana, Kerala, Odisha and union territories of Goa and Pondicherry [5–7]. Seasonal outbreaks of acute encephalitis syndrome (AES) among children have been reported in the country causing high morbidity and mortality [8]. During 2015, a total of 9854 cases and 1210 deaths due to AES, 1730 cases and 291 deaths due to JE were recorded by the National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP) in India [8]. During the same year, in Odisha State, a total of 660 cases and two AES deaths and 33 cases and two deaths due to JE were reported [8].