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Taming the Enemy
Published in Norman Begg, The Remarkable Story of Vaccines, 2023
Intranasal vaccines are still relatively new. The only successful nasal spray vaccine to date is for the flu. When it is squirted up your nose, the flu virus in the vaccine attaches itself to the lining of the nose and throat. It starts to multiply, generating an immune response and triggering the chain of events that protect you against the strains of flu in the vaccine. Many vaccines in development are trying the same approach, and I expect we will see more intranasal vaccines over the next few years.
An Overview of COVID-19 Treatment
Published in Hanadi Talal Ahmedah, Muhammad Riaz, Sagheer Ahmed, Marius Alexandru Moga, The Covid-19 Pandemic, 2023
Saffora Riaz, Farkhanda Manzoor, Dou Deqiang, Najmur Rahman
For treatment of COVID-19 infection among patients, drugs that were used for flu were also suggested. As immunomodulatory drugs, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) were proposed. The use of HCQ reduced viral load was significantly associated with the viral disappearance shown in a non-randomized trial of macrolides azithromycin. In particular, these drugs inhibit the mobilization and activation of neutrophils, stimulate the alveolar macrophages phagocytosis, induce the downregulation of cell surface adhesion molecules, production of pro-inflammatory cytokines [41–45]. Chloroquine can act in prolongation of viral infection. Thought to be used as HCQ with azithromycin can work in prolongation and heart arrhythmias [46].
The 1918 Influenza A Pandemic
Published in Patricia G. Melloy, Viruses and Society, 2023
Even if our surveillance systems for influenza A were not able to stop an epidemic or pandemic, more treatment options are available to those who have influenza in the 21st century than in 1918. However, if no complications develop, managing fever, staying hydrated, and treating symptoms still works well in treating the flu (Krammer et al. 2018). There are drugs called “neuraminidase inhibitors” like Tamiflu (oseltamivir) that can reduce the length of influenza in patients as well, if given early in the course of the illness (Brown 2018; Ison 2017; Krammer et al. 2018). Drugs like amantadine and rimantadine were used for a time to block the M2 protein of influenza A, but more recent articles indicate that existing influenza A strains are resistant to these drugs (Couch 1996; Ison 2017; Krammer et al. 2018). Antibiotics are available to treat secondary, nonviral infections. Modern testing also makes an influenza viral infection diagnosis much easier than in 1918. Influenza can be diagnosed using antibody tests like an ELISA (Couch 1996). Newer technologies such as RT-PCR, a rapid antigen test, a rapid molecular test looking at viral nucleic acid, and a viral culture test can be employed to identify influenza virus infection as well (Krammer et al. 2018). Also, every year a new flu vaccine is developed to help cut down on the number of cases and fatalities from the flu.
Cost-effectiveness of influenza vaccination with a high dose quadrivalent vaccine of the elderly population in Belgium, Finland, and Portugal
Published in Journal of Medical Economics, 2023
Fabián P. Alvarez, Pierre Chevalier, Matthias Borms, Hélène Bricout, Catia Marques, Anu Soininen, Tatu Sainio, Christine Petit, Caroline de Courville
Influenza is an acute respiratory infection caused by an RNA virus of the Orthomyxoviridae family. Usually, flu starts suddenly with a high fever, muscular soreness, headache, severe fatigue, general discomfort, and respiratory symptoms, such as dry cough, rhinorrhea. The illness lasts for about a week, but fatigue is frequently felt for two weeks or more1. A dry cough can persist for two weeks. Although benign in most cases, influenza may lead to severe complications or an aggravation of an already existing chronic disease (such as diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, heart failure, chronic kidney disease2). Evidence shows that influenza increases the risk of pneumonia by 100 in the week following the infection, due to the influenza virus implication in the pathogenesis of several respiratory bacterial pathogens commonly associated with pneumonia3. In addition, a large number of published papers suggests that laboratory-confirmed influenza infection may be associated with an increased risk of acute myocardial infarction estimated as six times higher4. In a case-crossover analysis using California data, among 36,975 hospitalized ischemic strokes, the risk of stroke after an Influenza‐like illness (ILI) episode increased by almost three times in the days following the flu infection5.
Safety outcomes associated with the moderna COVID-19 vaccine (mRNA-1273): a literature review
Published in Expert Review of Vaccines, 2023
Angel Shabu, Prasad S. Nishtala
The most prevalent symptoms of COVID-19 are; fever (chills), new continuous dry cough, fatigue, and upper respiratory tract symptoms such as pharyngitis, headaches, and myalgia [1,4]. Similarities in the presentation of COVID-19 with other seasonal illnesses, such as colds and flu, have made it challenging for individuals to initially differentiate the symptoms of the disease and isolate themselves leading to the spread of the disease. However, over time PCR testing and antigen tests made it easier to diagnose COVID than to diagnose flu. COVID-19 is predominantly spread from person to person through respiratory droplets and contact transmission, where the disease can be propagated through close contact with an infected individual or by touching surfaces covered in droplets [1,4]. The high transmissibility rates of SARS-CoV-2 have made it imperative to implement preventative measures such as vaccines to reduce the spread of the disease, particularly within susceptible populations at risk of severe outcomes. Of known COVID-19 deaths in England and Wales from January to May 2021, older adults (over 60 years) accounted for more than 90% of reported deaths. In contrast, children (<10 years old) accounted for less than 0.1% [5].
Testing for genetic mutation of seasonal influenza virus
Published in Journal of Applied Statistics, 2023
HA mediates the entry of a virus into the cell and the corresponding antibody protects the body from illness; while NA facilitates the spread of a virus among the cells and its antibody generally reduces the severity of illness; [25]. Accordingly, flu vaccines are developed each year to protect the general public against infections .3 A flu vaccine is made up from a collection of strains of virus observed in previous years that are predicted to circulate in the upcoming flu season, and would therefore provide an effective protection if the vaccine shot is administrated ahead of time. For example, it has been suggested that the 2019/20 flu vaccine contains an A/Brisbane/02/2018 (H1N1)pdm09 like virus, an A/Kansas/14/2017 (H3N2) like virus, a B/Colorado/06/2017 like virus, and a B/Phuket/3073/2013 like virus, according to the World Health Organization. To what extent the vaccine is effective depends on whether there is a good match between the strains selected, as parts of a vaccine, and the current circulating strain.