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Assessment of fetal behavior
Published in Hung N. Winn, Frank A. Chervenak, Roberto Romero, Clinical Maternal-Fetal Medicine Online, 2021
Asim Kurjak, Milan Stanojevic, Badreldeen Ahmed, Guillermo Azumendi, Lara Spalldi-Barisic
The brain stem consists of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain (Fig. 2). It forms and matures in a caudal to rostral direction. That means that the phylogenetically older structures, such as the medulla oblongata, will form and mature earlier in the gestation. The major structures of the medulla oblongata are fashioned by the 7 to 8th week of gestation and are completely matured by the 7 months of gestation. In addition to its many subnuclei, the medulla gives rise to a variety of descending spinal motor tracts that reflexively trigger limb and body movements. It also hosts the five cranial nerves (VIII–XII), which exert tremendous influences on gross body movements, heart rate, respiration, and the head turning. As the medulla matures in advance of more rostral structures of the brain stem, reflexive movements of the head, body, extremities, as well as breathing movements (Fig. 2) and alterations in heart rate appear in advance of other functions. The formation of pons begins almost simultaneously, but its maturation is more prolonged. The structures of the pons include the V to VIII cranial nerves (vestibular nuclei of the nerve VIII) and the medial longitudinal fasciculus, pontine tegmentum, raphe nucleus, and locus coeruleus, which exert widespread influences on arousal, including the sleep–wake cycles. Facial movements, which are also controlled by V and VII cranial nerves, appear around 10 to 11 weeks.
Anatomy of the head and neck
Published in Helen Whitwell, Christopher Milroy, Daniel du Plessis, Forensic Neuropathology, 2021
The pons is the upward continuation of the brainstem from the medulla and is divisible into anterior and posterior parts. The anterior part contains the pontocerebellar fibres, which arise from the pontine nuclei. These pass through the middle cerebellar peduncle to the contralateral side of the cerebellum. In the rostral part of the pons, the lateral wall of the fourth ventricle is composed of paired superior cerebellar peduncles, with a thin superior medullary velum connecting them and forming its roof. These peduncles converge towards the midline as they pass into the midbrain and contain cerebellar afferent and efferent fibres.
Biological Basis of Behavior
Published in Mohamed Ahmed Abd El-Hay, Understanding Psychology for Medicine and Nursing, 2019
The brain stem is composed of three structures: the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. It plays an important role in maintaining homeostasis by controlling autonomic functions, such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
Stretching beyond our perceived boundaries: The role of speech-language pathology in realising autonomy through supported decision-making
Published in International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 2023
A deep dive into emerging theories of neuroscience and the source of consciousness has led to a comparison of the respective functioning of the cerebral cortex and the brain stem. The cerebral cortex is historically assumed to be the seat of conscious action and intelligence, while the brain stem is responsible for performing automatic/unconscious functions. Solms, however, argue that consciousness arises not in the cortex, but in the more primitive brain stem, where basic emotions begin. As it is the cortex that is typically damaged for people with profound intellectual and multiple disability, there is a long held hypothesis that people with PIMD lack the ability to engage in conscious action and thought. It is this hypothesis that neuroscientists such as Solms and colleagues are challenging (Solms, 2015, 2022; Solms & Panksepp, 2012; Solms & Turnbull, 2018).
Stress-induced expression pattern of glutamate signaling genes associated with anhedonia
Published in Stress, 2020
Nikolay N. Dygalo, Tatyana S. Kalinina, Galina T. Shishkina
Following decapitation, the brains were quickly removed, and the prefrontal cortex (Cort.), hippocampus (Hip.), amygdala (Amy.), midbrain (Mid.), and brainstem (Bst.) were rapidly isolated on ice, using the rat brain atlas coordinates (Paxinos & Watson, 1998), and immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen. The prefrontal cortex sample included a tissue section 1.5 mm thick cut from the between hemispheres surface approximately from AP (anterior-posterior) +4.5 to +2.2, L (lateral) 0–1.5 and DV (dorsal-ventral) 2 to 4.5 mm from the bregma. Hippocampal (AP +0.8 to −5.2, L 1-6 and DV 2-7 mm) and amygdala (AP −1.4 to −3.6, L 2-6 and DV 6.3–9 mm) samples were dissected from the brain. As previously described (Shishkina et al., 2007), the midbrain sample included the block of tissue from the rostral border of the superior colliculus to the rostral border of the pons to approximately −8.7 mm bregma. The brainstem that was caudal to the midbrain region included medulla oblongata.
Direct Peritoneal Resuscitation Reduces Lung Injury and Caspase 8 Activity in Brain Death*
Published in Journal of Investigative Surgery, 2020
Jessica L. Weaver, Jessica E. Schucht, Paul J. Matheson, Amy J. Matheson, Cameron A. Ghazi, Cynthia D. Downard, Richard Neal Garrison, Jason W. Smith
Severe brain injuries can progress to brain death, a state wherein cortical or brain stem function and neuronal outflow are lost, including the respiratory drive, is lost [1, 2]. If these patients are promptly resuscitated, cardiac and hemodynamic function (and thus macrovascular organ perfusion) can be maintained to allow for organ transplantation. However, brain death is often associated with marked physiological instability, which, if not managed, leads to deterioration of organ function before retrieval can be performed. An increasing body of evidence exists that suggests that moderation of these pathophysiological changes by active management and aggressive resuscitation maintains organ function, which thereby increases the number and functional quality of organs available for transplantation [1, 3, 4].