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Peripheral Energy Markets
Published in Anco S. Blazev, Global Energy Market Trends, 2021
CAFE standards apply separately to domestic and imported sales fleets. That program has been relatively successful, but its effect is minimal due to the extensive use of low MPG vehicles (large trucks and SUVs) in the country. In 1977, President Carter called the energy crisis the “moral equivalent of war” and established the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), which consolidated several energy-related entities, and functions of the Federal Government into a single, Cabinet-level organization. Until the 1970s, energy and fuel-specific programs were handled by several Federal departments: The Department of the Interior managed most Federal programs affecting the coal and oil industries, the Federal Power Commission regulated natural gas prices, and the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) oversaw the development of nuclear power. Post 1970 events accelerated the reorganization of the energy-related programs of the Federal government. AEC was replaced with two new agencies; the Federal Energy Administration (FEA) was created in 1974 to administer programs that included crude oil price and allocation, and the SPR replacement of natural gas and oil with coal, and energy conservation.
Financing
Published in Peter F. Varadi, Wolfgang Palz, Michael Eckhart, Allan R. Hoffman, Paula Mints, Bill Rever, John Wohlgemuth, Frank P.H. Wouters, Sun Towards High Noon, 2017
The energy crises of the 1970s—the 1973–1974 OPEC Oil Embargo and the Iraq-Iran War—led to a new appreciation of energy issues and forced the US government to broaden its focus to include renewable energy and energy efficiency. Major changes included the establishment of the Federal Energy Administration (FEA) in 1974, and the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) in 1975, which absorbed the responsibilities of the AEC and several energy programs in other federal agencies. The DOE was established on October 1, 1977, incorporating activities of the FEA and ERDA. All of the federal energy R&D programs—fossil, nuclear, renewables, energy efficiency—were brought under its purview, along with new programs in energy storage and electricity transmission and distribution (T&D) systems.
Future Energy and Energy Security
Published in Anco S. Blazev, Energy Security for The 21st Century, 2021
Post-1970 events accelerated the reorganization of the energy-related programs of the federal government. AEC was replaced with two new agencies; the Federal Energy Administration (FEA) was created in 1974 to administer programs that included crude oil price and allocation, and the SPR replacement of natural gas and oil with coal, and energy conservation.
Adding flexibility to petroleum refining through the introduction of modular plants – a case study for Brazil
Published in Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning, and Policy, 2021
Renata Cristina Teixeira, Alexandre Salem Szklo, David Castelo Branco
One of the mini-refinery concepts is a modular refinery, that is, a processing plant built entirely by skid-mounted structures. Each structure contains a portion of the plant and they are connected through pipes forming an easily manageable process (Ivbaze 2015; Mandel 2007; Shah 2020). Even though the concept of mini-refineries is not homogeneous,1The concepts of mini-refineries or even small refineries are still diverse in the literature. The Energy Policy Act of 2005, a bill passed by the United States Congress, defined small refineries as those facilities with a gross processing capacity of up to 75,000 barrels per day (US DOE 2011). The United States Environmental Protection Agency has defined the maximum processing capacity of 50,000 barrels of crude oil to frame refineries considered small. In 1982, this capacity was revised to just 20,000 barrels of crude oil processed per day (Beale et al. 1993). The United States Federal Energy Administration (US FEA), between 1973 and 1981, coordinated several programs to stabilize petroleum prices and allocate petroleum among refineries. In one of the programs, Small Refiner Bias (SRB), FEA provided benefits to refineries with a processing capacity of less than 175,000 barrels per day (Lloyd 1990). In addition, studies found in the literature point to a diversity of refineries considered small or mini, varying between the number of employees, the initial investment amount and mainly, the processing capacity: 500 to 20,000 barrels per day, 1,500 to 5,000 barrels per day, 17,000 barrels per day, 50,000 barrels per day (Caetani, Ferreira, and Borenstein 2016; Shah 2020; Silverio 2018; Speight 2020). it is a fact that projects with less processing capacity and modular construction are gaining space and their use in the energy industry has grown over the years. Countries like Afghanistan, Algeria, Angola, Brazil, Canada, Equatorial Guinea, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Liberia, Niger, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Syria and Vietnam have either built or announced the construction of mini-refineries, as identified in the publications of the media specialized in industry O&G (Brelsford 2018, 2020a, 2020b; Honeywell 2020; Iran Ready to build mini-refineries abroad: official 2013; Jaremko 2007; Kelly 2015; Launches 2015; Reuters staff 2014; Schritt 2018; Siqueira 2020; Turner 2020).