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Inanimate Debris Generated by Adverse Weather Conditions
Published in Ahmed F. El-Sayed, Foreign Object Debris and Damage in Aviation, 2022
Hail is a precipitation in the form of small balls or other pieces of ice falling separately or frozen together in irregular lumps. An individual unit of hail is called a hailstone. Small hail stones are equal or greater than 0.25 inch or 5 mm in diameter which is either round or conical [14]. Large hail stones may be equal or greater than 4.5 inch or 11.25 cm which indicate severe thunderstorms. Hailstones that are equal or greater than 0.75 inch in diameter can cause significant damage to aircraft and make it difficult to control. A severe case of hailstone was encountered at Vivian, South Dakota, on July 23, 2010, which diameter was 8 inches. Hailstones may influence aircraft during takeoff and cruise operation. Its strike with the windshields may yield zero visibility and influence its radome, propeller, and engines [15]. Hailstones of a sufficient size can cause damage too.
Kiwifruit
Published in Debashis Mandal, Ursula Wermund, Lop Phavaphutanon, Regina Cronje, Temperate Fruits, 2021
Among abiotic stresses, damages by frost, hail, sun scald, and wind are common in kiwifruit cultivation. At the outset, an unseasonal spring frost can cause the distortion of the young fruitlet with the fruit tapering toward the blossom end, which is markedly concave. Hail besides damaging shoots causes typical pitting, scarring, and distortion of fruit. The severity of symptoms will depend on the size and duration of the hailstorm. Damaged fruits are scarred with unsightly blemishes, although the lesions will often heal. Fruit exposed to the sun are prone to sun scald. This leaves a typical sunken, brown, leathery scar over the affected surface, rendering the fruit useless even for processing. Sometimes, the strong winds during the spring season damage the young shoots, which lead to the loss of fruit bearing shoots. In addition to fruit rejections due to pests or disease infestation, there are a number of rejection categories resulting from nonpathogenic causes that are important in the fruit-grading operation. These categories include the following.
Hail Damage
Published in Randall Noon, Introduction to Forensic Engineering, 2020
Hail ranges in size from less than that of a pea to several inches in diameter. The largest hailstone recorded in the United States was 17.5 inches in circumference, and was found on September 3, 1979 in Coffeyville, Kansas. The previous record holder had a circumference of 17 inches and weighed 1.5 pounds.
Hail ice impact simulation and damage response analysis in composite laminates
Published in Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Structures, 2023
Chao Zhang, Xin Fang, Jianchun Liu, Chunjian Mao
Establishing an appropriate hail ice model is the precondition for hail impact numerical simulation. Kim and Kedward [5] proposed an elastic-plastic ice model while the effect of strain-rate was not involved. Carney et al. [6] developed a phenomenological failure model of ice in tension and compression considering the strain-rate sensitivity of flow stress. Shazly et al. [7] and Kim and Keune [8] obtained the compressive strength of ice with different ranges of strain-rate. Pernas-Sanchez et al. [9] developed a model for ice at high strain-rates allowing for diverse response in tension and compression. Tippmann et al. [10] established an impact model for spherical hail ice based on strain-rate dependent data. The advantage of this model compared to previous models is that it does not require manual adjustment of material input parameters. In addition, this model can better simulate the rupture phenomenon of ice, especially in the early impact period.
Corrosion rate prediction and influencing factors evaluation of low-alloy steels in marine atmosphere using machine learning approach
Published in Science and Technology of Advanced Materials, 2020
Luchun Yan, Yupeng Diao, Zhaoyang Lang, Kewei Gao
During the whole exposure periods (Figure 3), the total content of alloying elements (ELEMENTS) was always one of the most significant features. Meanwhile, as shown in Figure 3b,d and f, the chloride deposition rate (CHLORIDE) and precipitation (PRECIPIT) had the most significant effect on the corrosion rate in the first three years of exposure test. In the initial formation stage of the rust layer, the corrosion product film was loose and thin. The deposited chloride increased the concentration of corrosive ions, and the precipitation (in the forms of drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel and hail) easily penetrated through the rust layer and created a wet corrosive environment on the metal surface. In more than five years of exposure tests, the RH_MIN became the most significant environmental factor (Figure 3(h,j,l)). As a thick and dense rust layer had been formed on the surface of the specimen, its permeability had changed significantly [46]. It became difficult for both the chloride ions and raindrops to reach the metal surface by permeating the rust layer. However, the long-term high relative humidity would affect the water content in the rust layer and help to form a corrosive microenvironment on the metal surface [45]. For instance, Ma et al. [47] proved that the existence of the outer layer makes the time of wet longer in the rust/steel interface, which provides a suitable location for electrochemical reactions, thereby inducing incessant corrosion and poor weatherability.
Hail suppression effectiveness for different cloud condensation nucleus (CCN) populations in continental and maritime environments
Published in Aerosol Science and Technology, 2023
In the cloud model, all liquid drops (cloud water and rainwater) used a unified Khrgian-Mazin size distribution (Pruppacher and Klett 1997; Kovačević and Ćurić 2013). The minimum and maximum values of hydrometeor size were provided by Kovačević and Ćurić (2014). Cloud ice crystals were distributed in gamma function form (Hu and He 1988). Ice-precipitating elements (snow, graupel, frozen raindrops, and hail) used an exponential distribution (Lin, Farley, and Orville 1983).