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Pipeline Architecture
Published in Pranabananda Chakraborty, Computer Organisation and Architecture, 2020
One elegant mechanism that Intel exploits to make its cache usage more effective is prefetching, to fill the caches speculatively with data which is likely to be required soon. It is observed that the Core i7, however, improves on L2 cache performance, better than that of Core 2 Quad shared L2 cache, with the use of the dedicated L2 cache supported by a shared L3 cache with a relatively high speed. The Core i7 chip supports two forms of external communication to other chips. One is the DDR3 memory controller that connects the DDR main memory onto the chip. The interface supports three channels; each one is 8 bytes (64 bit) wide for a total bus width of 192 bits, for an aggregate data rate of up to 32 GB/s. With the memory controller on the chip, the front-side bus is not needed and hence is eliminated. The other one is the Quick Path Interconnect (QPI) which is a cache-coherent, point-to-point link-based electrical interconnect specification for Intel processors and chipsets. It provides high-speed communication between connected processor chips. The QPI links operate at 6.4 GT/s (giga transfers per second). At 16 bits per transfer, that adds up to 12.8 GB/s, and since QPI links involve dedicated bidirectional pairs, the total bandwidth is 25.6 GB/s.
Main Architectures and Hardware Resources of FPGAs
Published in Juan José Rodríguez Andina, Eduardo de la Torre Arnanz, María Dolores Valdés Peña, FPGAs, 2017
Juan José Rodríguez Andina, Eduardo de la Torre Arnanz, María Dolores Valdés Peña
Let us consider the sample controller in Figure 2.20 (Altera 2016), consisting of three main building blocks (all of them physically located in the I/O banks of the devices):The physical layer interface (UniPHY) directly interacts with the I/O pins and is in charge of ensuring an adequate timing between the controller and the external memory. One of the main problems of external memory interfaces is the skew among data lines due to PCB routing. This problem is particularly significant for wide, high-speed buses. UniPHY mitigates this problem by means of configurable delay chains, which allow the delay associated with each I/O pin to be independently adjusted so as to align all data in the bus.The memory controller is in charge of maximizing bandwidth, through efficient control of the commands for external memory. It uses two main strategies for that, namely, reordering commands to take advantage of idle/dead cycles and reordering data and commands to group read or write commands so that they are executed together, minimizing bus turnaround time.The multiport front end (MPFE) manages the access of multiple processes (read or write transactions) implemented in the FPGA fabric to the same hard external memory interface. In Arria 10 devices, it is a soft IP core.
PMD
Published in Heqing Zhu, Data Plane Development Kit (DPDK), 2020
The memory controller, RAM, and its physical layout affect the system performance. In general, the memory controller on the server platform supports multiple memory channels, and DPDK expects the physical RAMs are inserted evenly to all memory channels, which helps the optimal concurrent access to the memory and helps for the large packet-processing load. In a Linux system, “dmidecode memory” can help to inspect the memory details (Figure 7.8).
Event-triggered output feedback dissipative control of nonlinear systems under DoS attacks and actuator saturation
Published in International Journal of Systems Science, 2022
Fuqiang Li, Kang Li, Chen Peng, Lisai Gao
Due to the introduction of the delay term , the controller (16) is a memory controller. In general, a memory controller can obtain better performance than a memoryless controller (Gao et al., 2020).