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Bolometers
Published in Antoni Rogalski, Infrared and Terahertz Detectors, 2019
Another widely used thermal detector is the bolometer. The bolometer is a resistive element constructed from a material with a very small thermal capacity and a large temperature coefficient so that the absorbed radiation produces a large change in resistance. In contrast to the thermocouple, the device is operated by passing an accurately controlled bias current through the detector and monitoring the output voltage. The change in resistance is like to the photoconductor; however, the basic detection mechanisms are different. In the case of a bolometer, radiant power produces heat within the material, which in turn produces the resistance change. There is no direct photon–electron interaction.
EUV-induced hydrogen plasma and particle release
Published in Radiation Effects and Defects in Solids, 2022
Mark van de Kerkhof, Andrei M. Yakunin, Vladimir Kvon, Andrey Nikipelov, Dmitry Astakhov, Pavel Krainov, Vadim Banine
In a EUV-induced plasma, C–C and C=C bonds may also be broken by photons or secondary photoelectrons (68), besides by ions. The EUV absorption coefficient for carbon is low, so photons penetrate deeply and only ∼1% will be absorbed (69) in the top ∼2 nm that is considered relevant for etching at room temperature. The absorbed photons will generate free electrons which in turn will generate several secondary electrons, which may break bonds or provide activation energy for chemical reactions. The blur range of these secondary electrons is ∼2 nm which is why the relevant depth is taken to be 2 nm rather than the 1 nm used for ions (70). The direct photon contribution to C–C bond breaking, with a cross-section m2 at 13.5 nm wavelength (71), may be neglected relative to the secondary photoelectrons, with a cross section m2 and SEY ≈ 1% for carbon (72).
Challenge of adopting relatively low strength and self-cured geopolymer for road construction application: a review and primary laboratory study
Published in International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 2021
Peerapong Jitsangiam, Teewara Suwan, Kedsarin Pimraksa, Piti Sukontasukkul, Prinya Chindaprasirt
A strength test was conducted using a universal testing machine (UTM) in accordance with the BS EN 196-1 standard (British standard 2016), using 40 × 40 × 160 mm3 prisms with an age of three and 28 days (Figure 10). A scanning electron microscope (SEM), JEOL JSM-5910LV, with INCA software from Oxford Instrument, was used to define the microstructures and small particles of each mixture. The X-Ray diffraction (XRD) machine, 4-Circle Kappa Goniometer with Microfocus sealed tube (Mo) and Direct Photon counting detector (HyPixBantam), were used to analyze structural formation of the resulted products along with Cambridge Structure Database (CSD).