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The Anthrosphere
Published in Stanley E. Manahan, Environmental Chemistry, 2022
Two key choices that must be made in design for environment are those involving materials and energy. The choices of materials in an automobile illustrate some of the possible trade-offs. Steel as a component of automobile bodies requires large amounts of energy and involves significant environmental disruption in the mining and processing of iron ore. Steel is a relatively heavy material, so more energy is involved in moving automobiles made of steel. However, steel is durable, has a high rate of recycling, and is produced initially from abundant sources of iron ore. Aluminum is much lighter than steel and quite durable. It is one of the most commonly recycled commodities. Good primary sources of aluminum, bauxite ores, are not as abundant as iron ores, and large amounts of energy are required in the primary production of aluminum. Plastics are another source of automotive components. The light weight of plastic reduces automotive fuel consumption, plastics with desired properties are readily made, and molding and shaping plastic parts is a straightforward process. However, plastic automobile components have a low rate of recycling.
Steels
Published in M. Rashad Islam, Civil Engineering Materials, 2020
Steel is a widely used material in civil engineering. It is a mixture of several metals, though the majority of its composition is iron. Various amounts of carbon are added to attain certain properties such as strength, ductility, etc. Steel is mainly of two types: carbon steel and alloy steel. Carbon steel is mainly composed of two elements: iron and carbon. The proportion of carbon used varies between 0.02% and 1.7%. Alloy steel contains other elements apart from iron and carbon, such as manganese, silicon, boron, chromium, vanadium, and nickel. Depending on the degree of heat used while processing steel, it can be of two types: hot-rolled (1,000 ˚F) and cold-rolled (normal temperature). Different-shaped sections such as I-sections, angle sections, leg sections, etc. can be produced very precisely by hot-rolling. The cold-rolling method uses a temperature close to room temperature and can produce some basic shapes, such as pipe types, hollow structural sections, round, square, etc. ASTM grades a steel section based on its yield strength and ultimate strength, for different types of hot and cold-rolled sections, plates and bars, reinforcing bars, and fasteners.
The Anthrosphere: Industrial Ecology and Green Chemistry
Published in Stanley Manahan, Environmental Chemistry, 2017
Two key choices that must be made in design for environment are those involving materials and energy. The choices of materials in an automobile illustrate some of the possible trade-offs. Steel as a component of automobile bodies requires relatively large amounts of energy and involves significant environmental disruption in the mining and processing of iron ore. Steel is a relatively heavy material, so more energy is involved in moving automobiles made of steel. However, steel is durable, has a high rate of recycling, and is produced initially from abundant sources of iron ore. Aluminum is much lighter than steel and quite durable. It is one of the most commonly recycled commodities. Good primary sources of aluminum, bauxite ores, are not as abundant as iron ores, and large amounts of energy are required in the primary production of aluminum. Plastics are another source of automotive components. The light weight of plastic reduces automotive fuel consumption, plastics with desired properties are readily made, and molding and shaping plastic parts is a straightforward process. However, plastic automobile components have a low rate of recycling.
An overview of blade materials and technologies for hydrokinetic turbine application
Published in International Journal of Green Energy, 2023
Muhamad Hasfanizam Mat Yazik, Chang Wei Shyang, Mohammad Hafifi Hafiz Ishak, Farzad Ismail
Steel is an alloy product made of iron and carbon. It has a high density, low fatigue strength and low corrosion resistance. These disadvantages are the main reason why steel is not the optimum material used to fabricate turbine blade. However, steel is a widely used in hydro energy generation industry especially for hydropower turbine as a support structure, turbine cylinders and sometimes as deflectors. At the beginning of its development, engineers considered using steel as rotors for marine applications. However, the production cost of the curved profile is expensive and steel is very susceptible to seawater corrosion (Tual and Carrère 2015). Uncanny to its counterpart, stainless steel has a good corrosion and oxidation resistance properties. This was due to the presence of at least 11 wt% of chromium and some types with nickel and molybdenum. With density ranging from 7500 to 8000 kgm−3 (Li et al. 2019), stainless steel is suitable for marine environment because it contains higher molybdenum which enhances resistance to pitting corrosion in chloride environment like seawater (Harries 2014). Traditionally, stainless steel are the preferred materials for hydropower turbines (Steele 2007). However, stainless steel can cost up to 5 times higher than carbon steel depending on the alloy mix and when mixed and when mixed with carbon steel, it would rapidly increase the corrosion rate of the carbon steel (Nilsson 2009).
Multi-criteria optimization of TIG welding process parameters on AISI 409M stainless steel by Grey Taguchi method
Published in Welding International, 2023
Angshuman Roy, Nabendu Ghosh, Subrata Mondal
Eleven to twelve percent chromium utility stainless steels bridge the difference in corrosion resistance between stainless steels and carbon steels [1,2]. Most household utensils and other items are made of ferritic steels. Ferritic stainless steels (FSSs) are becoming increasingly popular since they resist corrosion better and cost less. It is also common to utilize low-chromium grades in vehicle exhaust systems because of their corrosion resistance and cost-effective fabrication [2]. SS 409M plates are highly sought after for their excellent corrosion resistance, and this is largely due to their composition of ferritic steel. Ferritic steel is a type of chromium stainless steel that is known for its exceptional resistance to corrosion, making it an ideal material for use in a variety of applications. This type of steel is made up of a high percentage of chromium, which gives it its characteristic resistance to corrosion. In addition to chromium, ferritic steel also contains varying amounts of carbon, silicon and other elements that help to improve its strength and durability.
Experimental evaluation of longitudinal tensile properties of ferritic stainless-steel weldment joined by metal inert gas, pulse metal inert gas, and tungsten inert gas welding
Published in Welding International, 2022
Shahid Hussain, Ajai Kumar Pathak
Stainless steels are iron-base alloys that contain iron as the primary element and chromium in amounts ranging from 10.5% to 30%. Other elements such as nickel, copper, aluminium, niobium, sulphur, molybdenum, titanium, silicon, nitrogen, and selenium are also added to enhance the specific properties. Carbon content ranges from 0.03% to more than 1% in some martensitic types. Stainless steels can be used in a broad range of applications, both cast and wrought, in a variety of environments [1]. When stainless steel is exposed to atmospheric gases, the chromium in the steel produces chromium-rich oxide, which forms an adhesive and invisible thin layer on the surface and is responsible for the stainless characteristic. This thin layer protects the surface from rust, corrosion, and further oxidation. Stainless steels are also known as corrosion-resistant steels. These steels can tolerate the attack of various chemicals, liquids, and gases [2]. Stainless steel can be categorized into five groups on the basis of its metallurgical phase. They are namely austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, duplex (austenitic-ferritic), and precipitation-hardening stainless steels. The ferritic grade is cheaper because it carries no or very low amounts of nickel.