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Steels
Published in M. Rashad Islam, Civil Engineering Materials, 2020
Steel is a widely used material in civil engineering. It is a mixture of several metals, though the majority of its composition is iron. Various amounts of carbon are added to attain certain properties such as strength, ductility, etc. Steel is mainly of two types: carbon steel and alloy steel. Carbon steel is mainly composed of two elements: iron and carbon. The proportion of carbon used varies between 0.02% and 1.7%. Alloy steel contains other elements apart from iron and carbon, such as manganese, silicon, boron, chromium, vanadium, and nickel. Depending on the degree of heat used while processing steel, it can be of two types: hot-rolled (1,000 ˚F) and cold-rolled (normal temperature). Different-shaped sections such as I-sections, angle sections, leg sections, etc. can be produced very precisely by hot-rolling. The cold-rolling method uses a temperature close to room temperature and can produce some basic shapes, such as pipe types, hollow structural sections, round, square, etc. ASTM grades a steel section based on its yield strength and ultimate strength, for different types of hot and cold-rolled sections, plates and bars, reinforcing bars, and fasteners.
Occurrence and Importance of Heavy Metal Contamination
Published in Jiaping Paul Chen, Decontamination of Heavy Metals, 2012
Iron is used for production of stainless steel. Steel is heavily used in the construction and automobile industries. When nickel and chromium are added during production, the hardness of steel can be greatly improved. Nickel compounds are also used for nickel plating, coloring ceramics, making batteries, and as a catalyst. China imported 5,350,000 tons of iron ore valued at 3,922.280 million US dollars and 440,000 tons of chromium ore valued at 76.143 million US dollars, respectively, in May 2009 (www.chinamining.org). The imports in January–May 2009 reached 24,189,000 tons valued at 18,853.828 million US dollars and 1,870,000 tons valued at 372.165 million US dollars, respectively, for iron and chromium ores. The world iron ore market achieved an all-time high for production in 2011 of 1.92 billion tons up, 4.7% from 2010. However, China’s iron ore import started fail since early 2012.
Metal Industries
Published in Charles E. Baukal, Industrial Combustion Pollution and Control, 2003
Iron is one of the more abundant and widely distributed elements in the earth's crust. It is the fourth most abundant after aluminum, silicon, and oxygen. Because raw iron readily combines with other elements, it is rarely found by itself in nature. Iron oxides are the most common naturally occurring form of iron. Steel is a generic name for a group of ferrous metals composed primarily of iron, some carbon, and other elements. Steel is used in a very wide range of applications because of its low cost, high strength, durability, formability, versatility, and flexibility. It is contained in a wide range of products such as cars, bridges, buildings, household appliances, and piping to name a few. Nearly all of the furnaces and heaters discussed in this book are constructed from some type of steel.
An overview of blade materials and technologies for hydrokinetic turbine application
Published in International Journal of Green Energy, 2023
Muhamad Hasfanizam Mat Yazik, Chang Wei Shyang, Mohammad Hafifi Hafiz Ishak, Farzad Ismail
Steel is an alloy product made of iron and carbon. It has a high density, low fatigue strength and low corrosion resistance. These disadvantages are the main reason why steel is not the optimum material used to fabricate turbine blade. However, steel is a widely used in hydro energy generation industry especially for hydropower turbine as a support structure, turbine cylinders and sometimes as deflectors. At the beginning of its development, engineers considered using steel as rotors for marine applications. However, the production cost of the curved profile is expensive and steel is very susceptible to seawater corrosion (Tual and Carrère 2015). Uncanny to its counterpart, stainless steel has a good corrosion and oxidation resistance properties. This was due to the presence of at least 11 wt% of chromium and some types with nickel and molybdenum. With density ranging from 7500 to 8000 kgm−3 (Li et al. 2019), stainless steel is suitable for marine environment because it contains higher molybdenum which enhances resistance to pitting corrosion in chloride environment like seawater (Harries 2014). Traditionally, stainless steel are the preferred materials for hydropower turbines (Steele 2007). However, stainless steel can cost up to 5 times higher than carbon steel depending on the alloy mix and when mixed and when mixed with carbon steel, it would rapidly increase the corrosion rate of the carbon steel (Nilsson 2009).
Performance of corrosion inhibitors in cracked and uncracked silica fume cement concrete beams
Published in European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering, 2020
Khaled A. Alawi Al-Sodani, Mohammed Maslehuddin, Omar S. Baghabra Al-Amoudi, Tawfik A. Saleh, Mohammed Shameem
Corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete is the principal contributor to the early deterioration of reinforced concrete structures. Deterioration of bond between the corroding reinforcing steel and surrounding concrete is one of the most essential motives for the structural degradation of reinforced concrete structures (Güneyisi, Mermerdaş, & Gültekin, 2016; Güneyisi, Mermerdaş, Güneyisi, & Gesoğlu, 2015). While deteriorating concrete structures need to be repaired to serve their design life, preventive measures have also to be incorporated to avoid the premature deterioration of the infrastructure due to reinforcement corrosion. There are several protective measures that can be used to delay the corrosion related problems. Some of these include: (i) improving the performance of concrete via the application of surface coatings or hydrophobic agents, (ii) utilisation of impermeable and dense concrete following suitable construction practices and mix design and (iii) protection of steel via the use of corrosion inhibitors or by applying metallic or non-metallic coatings (Aguirre-Guerrero, Robayo-Salazar, & de Gutiérrez, 2017; Bandeira, van Drunen, Tremiliosi-Filho, dos Santos, & de Matos, 2017; Claire et al., 2016; Fihri, Bovero, Shahrani, Ghamdi, & Alabedi, 2017; García-Rodríguez, López, Torres, & Rams, 2016; Holland, Kurtis, & Kahn, 2016; Pei, Noël, Green, Fam, & Shier, 2017; Suzana et al., 2016; Zheng, Shao, Wang, Meng, & Liu, 2017).
Optimum heat treatment of aluminum alloy used in manufacturing of automotive piston components
Published in Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 2018
Maaz Akhtar, Sayyad Zahid Qamar, Muzamil Muhammad, Ali Nadeem
Traditionally, steels have been the material of choice in the automotive industry for manufacturing of pistons, engine blocks, camshafts, and other components. Steel parts are generally heavier and have corrosion issues. Past few decades have therefore witnessed research and development work focused on alternate materials. Aluminum alloys have good strength-to-weight ratio, better formability, excellent corrosion resistance, and high recycling potential [5–7]. This has led to the use of high-silicon aluminum alloys in many companies around the globe for manufacture of different components [4,8,9]. Some of these alloys are eutectic or near-eutectic and possess superior properties suitable for automotive pistons; hence, the name piston alloys [10]. Table 1 shows the elemental compositions of Aluminum AC series alloys [11].